BEST LEFT AS INDIANS
191
and basic citizenship combined with a ready deprecation of native talents,
served to hasten the destruction of Indian culture and its replacement with
"Canadian" values and attitudes (Gresko, 1981:37-45). While this characteriza-
tion may reflect conditions in southern centres, it does not adequately describe
the role of Indian education in the Yukon.
The federal government placed very little value on the educational offerings
of the churches providing money for the schools primarily to neutralize
potential church objections. The Anglican church held responsibility for native
education in the territory, operating several seasonal day schools and the
residential facility at Carcross. The day schools in particular attracted little
government confidence. The irregular program, offered only when the Indians
resided near a church mission, was taught by teachers of widely varying talent.
Through the 1920's, and 1930's, most of the teachers were students on summer
leave from the Anglican School of Theology in Vancouver. Their unquestioned
enthusiasm could not compensate for their lack of knowledge of local conditions
and their inability to converse in native languages. Justifying the federal govern-
ment's limited interest in day schools, Indian Agent Hawksley commented in
1933:
The Indians, owing to changed circumstances, cannot afford to
stay around the villages or leave their families while the men go
away to hunt and trap, they are compelled to separate into small
parties and live in the woods for the purpose of hunting and
trapping in order to make a living. Opportunities of obtaining work
from white people are very much reduced. To insist upon the
Indian families staying in the village (which has been suggested)
would mean that some of them would have to receive help in the
way of provisions. It appears to be a much wiser policy to keep
them independent, earning their own living, and they are less
liable to get into bad habits. 53
Given the choice between education and self-sufficiency, the government clearly
favoured the latter. Not until 1945 did the federal government place any
importance on the day school program. The provision of minimal funding served
more as an indirect subsidy to the Anglican missions than as an attempt at
assimilation.
While the seasonal day schools were clearly deficient operations, the
Carcross Residential School offered better prospects. Boarding schools are
typically, and appropriately, portrayed as the ultimate form of cultural imperial-
ism (Albach and Kelly, 1978; Fuchs and Havighurst, 1973; Szasz, 1974).
Children were removed from their parents at a young age and separated through
their formative years from the influence of their tribal culture. A total
institution designed to recast all aspects of the young minds placed under its
care, the boarding school served as one means by which the assimilationist
aspirations of government and church could be realized. The federal govern-
ment clearly had such goals in mind when the industrial-boarding school pro-
192
KEN COATES
gram expanded westward in the late 19th Century. By the time the Carcross
facility opened in 1911, however, government and church attitudes had changed
significantly. Many of those involved acknowledged that the industrial school
concept in particular had failed, offering the students unusable skills, raising
false expectations and preparing the children inadequately for life after school.
As early as 1906, the Special Indian Committee of the Missionary Society of the
Church of England in Canada recommended that educational offerings be
limited to basic literacy, elementary computational skills, and "such additional
work as will fit the child to take his place as workman in the locality in which
he is to live. "54 The federal government, especially top-ranking Department of
Interior official Frank Pedley and his minister Frank Oliver, shared these
opinions. Both men encouraged a less structured boarding school curriculum.
Oliver went even further, wondering on several occasions whether the boarding
school format was of any utility. 55
The Carcross school administrators unsuccessfully attempted to overcome
the contradictions inherent in their program. The educational package centred
on offering vocational training as would "be useful and profitable to them in
after life." Recognizing the limited prospects for industrial development in the
region, the teachers taught the boys to hunt and fish and provided basic handy-
man skills. In addition to domestic work around the school, girls were
encouraged to learn beadwork and other "profitable" skills. While accepting the
limitations on their educational offerings, these Christian teachers would not
forego their religious mission. They made systematic efforts to encourage the
moral and spiritual "improvement" of the native children, even if it meant the
equally systematic depreciation of Indian values and beliefs. Special emphasis
was placed on hygiene, work discipline, manners, and Christian morality. The
main legacy of the school lay in one fundamental contradiction. In the
occupational domain, student training focused on skills essential for survival
after return to the hunting and fishing camps. At the same time, the moral and
spiritual teachings of the school taught the children to abhor the culture and
values of the villages to which they were returning. The inconsistency of the
residential school program would cause major difficulties for the students upon
re-entry into native society. Ironically, the program designed with the limited
aim of making them "better Indians" only served to turn them into marginal
people, caught between a native lifestyle they had learned to disdain and a white
society unprepared to accept them. 56
Education is typically viewed as the centre-piece of government attempts
to civilize and assimilate the Indians of Canada. The cultural imperialism of these
Yukon institutions emerged in the missionaries' effort to undermine native
culture, morals, and work habits. Importantly, the federal government placed
little value on these undertakings, providing funding primarily for fear of
political repercussions should the Anglican Church be denied assistance. Again,
however, the standard that dominated educational programming in the Yukon
was "best left as Indians." The government would not encourage, let alone
force, the natives to abandon nomadic patterns in order just to improve access-
ibility to schools. The desire to prepare the children adequately for life in the
hunting and fishing camps even dominated the Carcross Residential School