Jaguar (
Panthera onca)
Care Manual
36
Association of Zoos and Aquariums
Table 6. Main prey species of jaguar identified to date (Mondolfi & Hoogesteijn, 1982; Schaller & Vasconcelos, 1978;
Guggisberg, 1975).
Common Name
Scientific Name
Capybara
Hydrochaerus hydrochaeris
Spectacled caiman
Caiman crocodylus
Side-necked turtle
Podocnemys vogii
Terecay turtle
Podocnemys unifillis
Collared peccary
Pecari tajacu (syn.
Tayassu tajacu, Dicotyles tajacu)
Table 7. Lesser Prey Species identified to date (Mondolfi & Hoogesteijn, 1982; Rabinowitz & Nottingham, 1986).
Common Name
Scientific Name
Armadillo
a
Dasypus novemcinctus
Paca
a
Agouti paca
Collared anteater
Tamandua mexicana
Lesser anteater
Tamandua tetradactyla
White-tailed deer
Odocoileus virginianus
Land tortoise
Geochelone carbonaria
Iguana
Iguana iguana
Porcupine
Coendou prehensilis
Howler monkey
Alouatta senniculus
Arrau
turtle
Podocnemys expansa
Sloths
Bradypus sp.
Giant armadillo
Priodontes maximus
Red brocket deer
Mazama americana
Agouti
a
Dasyprocta punctata
Opossum
Didelphis marsupialis
Coati
Nasua nasua
Four-eyed opossum
Philander opossum
Skunk
Spilogale putorius or
Conepatus semistriatius
Kinkajou
Potos flavus
a
Primary
species in Cockscomb Basin, Belize
Digestive System Morphology, and Physiology:
When masticatory muscle fiber architecture is
considered with bite force, jaguar dentition facilitates puncturing turtle shells and skulls of medium to large
prey (Hartstone-Rose
et al., 2012). Jaguars are obligate carnivores, and, therefore, may possess a
simple digestive tract comparable to the digestive system of other carnivores including the domestic cat
(Figure 3) and the lion. The ratio of small to large
intestines is similar among these three species with the
contribution of the length of each area (stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, cecum, and colon) to the total
length of the tract similar between the domestic cat and
lion (Seymour, 1989; Stevens & Hume, 1995; Smith
et
al., 2006). The intestine of domestic cats (
Felis
domesticus) maintains bacterial colonies comparable to
those in herbivorous species (Brosey
et al., 2000). These
can provide protection against invading bacteria,
stimulate gastrointestinal function
such as immunity and
motility, and digest fiber sources to produce volatile fatty
acids (Suchodolski, 2011). This is likely true for jaguar as
well; however, due to the small relative volume of the
feline tract, the contribution of volatile fatty acids to
digestion is probably negligible (Suchodolski, 2011). The
felid digestive tract allows for storage of large meals in
the stomach and efficient digestion of vertebrate prey
(Bennett
et al., 2010; Clauss
et al., 2010; Smith
et al.,
2006; Vester
et al., 2010), but it may limit digestion of
more complex fiber sources which omnivores and
herbivores are able to utilize (Edwards
et al.
,
2001;
Figure 3. Digestive tract of
Felis domesticus
(Stevens & Hume, 1995)
Jaguar (
Panthera onca)
Care Manual
37
Association of Zoos and Aquariums
Wynne, 1989). More recently, the fiber type qualities of indigestible prey parts including
raw bones,
tendons, cartilage, skin, hair or feathers, or “animal fiber” acting as either soluble or insoluble fiber have
been suggested to be similarly beneficial to the gastrointestinal health of cheetahs. These would be
expected to benefit jaguars’ digestion as well (Depauw, 2013).
Energy Requirements: Equations for basal metabolic rates (BMR) in carnivores are higher than for
omnivores or herbivores due to the high cost of capturing and handling food. The expression for BMR for
the jaguar is 67 kcal/kg BW
0.75
/day where BW = body weight (McNab, 2000). Analysis of food
consumption and body weight changes in a managed jaguar over time suggest 127 kcal/kg BW
.75
/day as
a daily maintenance requirement, which is approximately 2 x BMR (Treiber
et al., 2013). Energy to
maintain body condition score for four jaguars in a typical zoo setting over a four month period was 69
kcals/kg BW
.75
/day (Kerr
et al., 2013a), which is similar to BMR. Body weights were not recorded during
the study. Activity of jaguars in these two managed settings was not recorded and may explain some of
the difference in estimated energy needs. Additionally, four months may not have been long enough for
detection of a visual body change. The daily maintenance energy requirement predicted for domestic cats
at maintenance is 90 kcals ME/kgBW
0.75
, which is only 1.5 time BMR (NRC, 2006). Barbiers
et al. (1982),
through extrapolation, suggested 90–110 kcal/kg BW
0.75
/day for managed wild felids that are
similar to the
domestic cat. Estimated energy intake for adult wild jaguars as proposed by Emmons (1987) is 119–139
kcal/kg BW
0.75
/day, assuming 1.4 kcal/g of whole prey. It is likely that higher requirements for free-ranging
animals reflect increased activity associated with hunting. Considering this data for managed jaguars is
limited (few animals or lack of body weights), a maintenance requirement of 100–127 kcal/kgBW
0.75
for
managed jaguars in zoos is proposed. This is approximately 1.8 kg (4 lb) per for adult male jaguars and
1.6 kg (3.5 lb) for adult female jaguars on a diet 1.75 kcals/g. Individual feeding rates should be evaluated
and readjusted based on regular assessment of body condition score and weights.
Reproduction Nutrition: Gestation and lactation in the domestic cat are periods of increased energy
demand. The maternal contribution to reproduction is dependent on the size of the litter, growth rate of
the offspring, and
relative size of the offspring; therefore, a comparison between the domestic cat and
larger felids may not be appropriate. Energy requirements for the domestic cat during gestation are
approximately 40% higher than normal and approximately twice that of maintenance energy requirements
during peak lactation (NRC, 2006). However, no difference in metabolic rate was observed in a female
puma (
Puma concolor) during lactation (McNab, 2000). Considering known parameters in jaguars
including maternal weight, weight of young, time of first solids, and litter size , the predicted increase in
energy needs for early to mid-gestation and peak lactation are 0.7 kcals/kg BW
0.75/
day and 71 kcals/kg
BW
0.75
/day, respectively (Oftedal & Gittleman, 1989). Optimal weight gain or weight loss during
reproduction in large felids has not been studied. In domestic cats, body stores can be mobilized for
gestation and lactation (Loveridge, 1986). Since extreme body condition scores are associated with
multiple health risks to the mother and offspring, it is recommended that gestating and lactating jaguars
be fed to maintain body condition within the moderate range (Body Condition Score [BCS] 4–6). For more
information
on nutritional evaluations, see section 6.3.
Growth Nutrition: Energy requirements for growth can be estimated from domestic cats (NRC, 2006)
considering maintenance energy requirement and proportion of mature bodyweight as follows: ME
g
kcal/d
= ME
m
+ (1.3*ME
m
-1.15*p) where ME
m
= maintenance energy requirement and p = proportion of mature
bodyweight = bodyweight/mature bodyweight. The energy requirement
is approximately 2.3 times the
maintenance energy requirement at birth and decreases to overestimate energy requirements close to
maturity by 13%. An alternative equation based on energy requirements derived from nursing kittens for
which 1 g (0.04 oz) gain costs 1.9 kcal (Hendricks & Wamberg, 2000; Kienzle, 1998) is ME
g
kcal/d = ME
m
+ 1.9(ADG). Average daily gain (ADG) for jaguars is predicted to be 48 g/day (1.7 oz/day) (Oftedal &
Gittleman, 1989).
For the purpose of developing this manual, weight data were collated from 71.81 parent-reared,
hand-reared, and unknown-reared jaguars (Figures 4 and 5) in AZA institutions during the past two
decades. Weight data for parent-reared and hand-reared animals were not significantly different, thus all
3 sets were combined for each sex. Below (Table 8) are the results of the segmental linear regression.
The model generated birth weights very close to actual/expected. Break points are similar to
oldest age of
weaning (11 weeks). Males grew faster overall, but both reached mature weight around 1.3 years old.
The expected mature weight for a female is approximately 51 kg (112.44 lbs), and for a male, expected