148 Man's Search for Meaning
is called in logotherapy.
8
To quote the Texarkana Gazette,
"Jerry Long has been paralyzed from his neck down since a
diving accident which rendered him a quadriplegic three
years ago. He was 17 when the accident occurred. Today
Long can use his mouth stick to type. He 'attends' two
courses at Community College via a special telephone. The
intercom allows Long to both hear and participate in class
discussions. He also occupies his time by reading, watching
television and writing." And in a letter I received from
him, he writes: "I view my life as being abundant with
meaning and purpose. The attitude that I adopted on that
fateful day has become my personal credo for life: I broke
my neck, it didn't break me. I am currently enrolled in my
first psychology course in college. I believe that my handi
cap will only enhance my ability to help others. I know that
without the suffering, the growth that I have achieved
would have been impossible."
Is this to say that suffering is indispensable to the dis
covery of meaning? In no way. I only insist that meaning is
available in spite of—nay, even through—suffering, pro
vided, as noted in Part Two of this book, that the suffering
is unavoidable. If it is avoidable, the meaningful thing to
do is to remove its cause, for unnecessary suffering is maso
chistic rather than heroic. If, on the other hand, one cannot
change a situation that causes his suffering, he can still
choose his attitude.
9
Long had not chosen to break his
29"The Defiant Power of the Human Spirit" was in fact the title
of
a paper presented by Long at the Third World Congress of
Logotherapy
in June 1983.
30I won't forget an interview I once heard on Austrian TV, given
by
a Polish cardiologist who, during World War II, had helped
organize
the Warsaw ghetto upheaval. "What a heroic deed," exclaimed the
re
porter. "Listen," calmly replied the doctor, "to take a gun and
shoot
is no great thing; but if the SS leads you to a gas chamber or to a
mass
grave to execute you on the spot, and you can't do anything about
it—
except for going your way with dignity—you see, this is what I
would
call heroism." Attitudinal heroism, so to speak.
The Case for a Tragic Optimism 149
neck, but he did decide not to let himself be broken by
what had happened to him.
As we see, the priority stays with creatively changing the
situation that causes us to suffer. But the superiority goes to
the "know-how to suffer," if need be. And there is empirical
evidence that—literally—the "man in the street" is of the
same opinion. Austrian public-opinion pollsters recently
reported that those held in highest esteem by most of the
people interviewed are neither the great artists nor the
great scientists, neither the great statesmen nor the great
sports figures, but those who master a hard lot with their
heads held high.
In turning to the second aspect of the tragic triad,
namely guilt, I would like to depart from a theological
concept that has always been fascinating to me. I refer to
what is called mysterium iniquitatis, meaning, as I see it,
that a crime in the final analysis remains inexplicable in
asmuch as it cannot be fully traced back to biological,
psychological and/or sociological factors. Totally explain
ing one's crime would be tantamount to explaining away
his or her guilt and to seeing in him or her not a free and
responsible human being but a machine to be repaired.
Even criminals themselves abhor this treatment and prefer
to be held responsible for their deeds. From a convict serv
ing his sentence in an Illinois penitentiary I received a letter
in which he deplored that "the criminal never has a chance
to explain himself. He is offered a variety of excuses to
choose from. Society is blamed and in many instances the
blame is put on the victim." Furthermore, when I addressed
the prisoners in San Quentin, I told them that "you are
human beings like me, and as such you were free to commit
a crime, to become guilty. Now, however, you are responsi
ble for overcoming guilt by rising above it, by growing
150 Man's Search for Meaning
beyond yourselves, by changing for the better." They felt
understood.
10
And from Frank E.W., an ex-prisoner, I re
ceived a note which stated that he had "started a logother-
apy group for ex-felons. We are 27 strong and the newer
ones are staying out of prison through the peer strength of
those of us from the original group. Only one returned—
and he is now free."
11
As for the concept of collective guilt, I personally think
that it is totally unjustified to hold one person responsible
for the behavior of another person or a collective of persons.
Since the end of World War II I have not become weary of
publicly arguing against the collective guilt concept.
12
Sometimes, however, it takes a lot of didactic tricks to de
tach people from their superstitions. An American woman
once confronted me with the reproach, "How can you still
write some of your books in German, Adolf Hitler's lan
guage?" In response, I asked her if she had knives in her
kitchen, and when she answered that she did, I acted dis
mayed and shocked, exclaiming, "How can you still use
knives after so many killers have used them to stab and
murder their victims?" She stopped objecting to my writing
books in German.
The third aspect of the tragic triad concerns death. But it
concerns life as well, for at any time each of the moments of
which life consists is dying, and that moment will never
recur. And yet is not this transitoriness a reminder that
challenges us to make the best possible use of each moment
31See also Joseph B. Fabry, The Pursuit of Meaning, New York,
Harper and Row, 1980.
32Cf. Viktor E. Frankl, The Unheard Cry for Meaning, New York,
Simon and Schuster, 1978, pp. 42-43.
33See also Viktor E. Frankl, Psychotherapy and Existentialism, New
York, Simon and Schuster, 1967.
The Case for a Tragic Optimism 151
of our lives? It certainly is, and hence my imperative: Live
as if you were living for the second time and had acted as
wrongly the first time as you are about to act now.
In fact, the opportunities to act properly, the potentiali
ties to fulfill a meaning, are affected by the irreversibility of
our lives. But also the potentialities alone are so affected.
For as soon as we have used an opportunity and have actu
alized a potential meaning, we have done so once and for
all. We have rescued it into the past wherein it has been
safely delivered and deposited. In the past, nothing is ir
retrievably lost, but rather, on the contrary, everything is
irrevocably stored and treasured. To be sure, people tend to
see only the stubble fields of transitoriness but overlook and
forget the full granaries of the past into which they have
brought the harvest of their lives: the deeds done, the loves
loved, and last but not least, the sufferings they have gone
through with courage and dignity.
From this one may see that there is no reason to pity old
people. Instead, young people should envy them. It is true
that the old have no opportunities, no possibilities in the
future. But they have more than that. Instead of possibili
ties in the future, they have realities in the past—the po
tentialities they have actualized, the meanings they have
fulfilled, the values they have realized—and nothing and
nobody can ever remove these assets from the past.
In view of the possibility of finding meaning in suffering,
life's meaning is an unconditional one, at least potentially.
That unconditional meaning, however, is paralleled by the
unconditional value of each and every person. It is that
which warrants the indelible quality of the dignity of man.
Just as life remains potentially meaningful under any con
ditions, even those which are most miserable, so too does
the value of each and every person stay with him or her,
and it does so because it is based on the values that he or
152 Man's Search for Meaning
she has realized in the past, and is not contingent on the
usefulness that he or she may or may not retain in the
present.
More specifically, this usefulness is usually defined in
terms of functioning for the benefit of society. But today's
society is characterized by achievement orientation, and
consequently it adores people who are successful and happy
and, in particular, it adores the young. It virtually ignores
the value of all those who are otherwise, and in so doing
blurs the decisive difference between being valuable in the
sense of dignity and being valuable in the sense of useful
ness. If one is not cognizant of this difference and holds that
an individual's value stems only from his present useful
ness, then, believe me, one owes it only to personal incon
sistency not to plead for euthanasia along the lines of Hit
ler's program, that is to say, "mercy" killing of all those
who have lost their social usefulness, be it because of old
age, incurable illness, mental deterioration, or whatever
handicap they may suffer.
Confounding the dignity of man with mere usefulness
arises from a conceptual confusion that in turn may be
traced back to the contemporary nihilism transmitted on
many an academic campus and many an analytical couch.
Even in the setting of training analyses such an indoctrina
tion may take place. Nihilism does not contend that there is
nothing, but it states that everything is meaningless. And
George A. Sargent was right when he promulgated the con
cept of "learned meaninglessness." He himself remembered
a therapist who said, "George, you must realize that the
world is a joke. There is no justice, everything is random.
Only when you realize this will you understand how silly it
is to take yourself seriously. There is no grand purpose in
the universe. It just is. There's no particular meaning
The Case for a Tragic Optimism 153
in what decision you make today about how to act."
13
One must not generalize such a criticism. In principle,
training is indispensable, but if so, therapists should see
their task in immunizing the trainee against nihilism rather
than inoculating him with the cynicism that is a defense
mechanism against their own nihilism.
Logotherapists may even conform to some of the training
and licensing requirements stipulated by the other schools
of psychotherapy. In other words, one may howl with the
wolves, if need be, but when doing so, one should be, I
would urge, a sheep in wolf's clothing. There is no need
to become untrue to the basic concept of man and the
principles of the philosophy of life inherent in logotherapy.
Such a loyalty is not hard to maintain in view of the fact
that, as Elisabeth S. Lukas once pointed out, "throughout
the history of psychotherapy, there has never been a school
as undogmatic as logotherapy."
14
And at the First World
Congress of Logotherapy (San Diego, California, November
6-8, 1980) I argued not only for the rehumanization of
psychotherapy but also for what I called "the degurufica-
tion of logotherapy." My interest does not lie in raising
parrots that just rehash "their master's voice," but rather in
passing the torch to "independent and inventive, innovative
and creative spirits."
Sigmund Freud once asserted, "Let one attempt to expose
a number of the most diverse people uniformly to hunger.
34"Transference and Countertransference in Logotherapy," The
International Forum for Logotherapy, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Fall/Winter
1982),
pp. 115-18.
35Logotherapy is not imposed on those who are interested in psycho
therapy. It is not comparable to an Oriental bazaar but rather
to a
supermarket. In the former, the customer is talked into buying
some
thing. In the latter, he is shown, and offered, various things from
which
he may pick what he deems usable and valuable.
154 Man's Search for Meaning
With the increase of the imperative urge of hunger all in
dividual differences will blur, and in their stead will appear
the uniform expression of the one unstilled urge." Thank
heaven, Sigmund Freud was spared knowing the concentra
tion camps from the inside. His subjects lay on a couch
designed in the plush style of Victorian culture, not in the
filth of Auschwitz. There, the "individual differences" did
not "blur" but, on the contrary, people became more dif
ferent; people unmasked themselves, both the swine and the
saints. And today you need no longer hesitate to use the
word "saints": think of Father Maximilian Kolbe who was
starved and finally murdered by an injection of carbolic
acid at Auschwitz and who in 1983 was canonized.
You may be prone to blame me for invoking examples
that are the exceptions to the rule. "Sed omnia praeclara tarn
difficilia quam rara sunt" (but everything great is just as
difficult to realize as it is rare to find) reads the last
sentence of the Ethics of Spinoza. You may of course ask
whether we really need to refer to "saints." Wouldn't it
suffice just to refer to decent people? It is true that they
form a minority. More than that, they always will remain a
minority. And yet I see therein the very challenge to join
the minority. For the world is in a bad state, but everything
will become still worse unless each of us does his best.
So, let us be alert—alert in a twofold sense: Since
Auschwitz we know what man is capable of. And
since Hiroshima we know what is at stake.
About the Author
Viktor E. Frankl is Professor of Neurology and Psychiatry
at the University of Vienna Medical School. He is the founder
of what has come to be called the Third Viennese School of
Psychotherapy (after Freud's psychoanalysis and Adler's in
dividual psychology)—the school of logotherapy. His work
has been called "perhaps the most significant thinking since
Freud and Adler" by the American Journal of Psychiatry.
Born in 1905, Dr. Frankl received the degrees of Doctor of
Medicine and Doctor of Philosophy from the University of
Vienna. During World War II he spent three years at Ausch
witz, Dachau, and other concentration camps.
Dr. Frankl first published in 1924 in the International Journal
of Psychoanalysis and has since published thirty books, which
have been translated into twenty-three languages, including
Japanese and Chinese. He has been a visiting professor at
Harvard, as well as at universities in Pittsburgh, San Diego,
and Dallas. Honorary doctoral degrees have been conferred
upon him by twenty-seven universities, and the American Psy
chiatric Association has honored him with the Oskar Pfister
Award. He has been a guest lecturer at universities throughout
the world and has made more than ninety lecture tours
throughout the United States alone.
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