In comparison, the competing concept of nervosism (or ‘ner-
vousness’), supported mainly by Barbosa, was a relatively new
and fashionable designation proposed in 1860 by Euge`ne
Bouchut (1818–91) (Bouchut, 1860) (Fig. 3). He defined this con-
dition as a ‘general neurosis’ (which meant not specifically located
in the central nervous system) characterized by an association of
several functional disturbances of sensibility, cognition, movement
and the main organ systems (Winslow, 1860). Nervosism could be
classified as cerebral, spinal, laryngeal, gastric, uterine, cutaneous,
spasmodic, paralytic or painful, depending on its manifestations,
although underlying all subtypes was a state of chronic depletion
of a supposed ‘nervous force’. As we can see, this is a much more
vague concept in comparison with the clinical rigour of Briquet’s
hysteria and countercurrent to the contemporary movement to-
wards functional localization of neuroses, and was not widely
accepted even by his contemporaries (Winslow, 1860). Barbosa
uses the concept mainly as supporting evidence for the existence
of a ‘nervous exhaustion’ which could cause the peripheral type of
paralysis. By the end of the 19th century, nervosism was lumped
together with other so-called ‘intermediate neuroses’ (such as
spinal irritation) and with George Miller Beard’s (1839–83) neur-
asthaenia, and together with hysteria these were the two major
neuroses that survived into the next century. They became the
focus of debate between the schools of the Salpeˆtrie`re [Charcot
and his disciples such as Babinski and Pierre Janet (1859–1947)]
and
Nancy
[represented
by
Ambroise-Auguste
Lie´beault
(1823–1904) or Hypollite Bernheim (1840–1919)], culminating in
the ‘psychological period’ of interpretation of which Sigmund
Freud (1856–1939) is the most evident representative (Lopez
Pinero, 1983c).
Figure 3
The influences on the debate: Pierre Briquet (top left), Euge`ne Bouchut (top right), Sigismond Jaccoud (bottom left) and
Charles-E´douard Brown Sequard (bottom right).
The ‘Ajuda Paralyses’
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As far as the nosological classification of the paralyses, the
pathophysiological distinctions between the above mentioned
‘functional’ paralyses are intriguing. The existence of hysterical
paralyses was a well-documented phenomenon among other
motor and sensory manifestations of hysteria and could have as
direct causes hysterical seizures, sudden ‘moral perturbations’, ex-
cessive fatigue, abrupt menstrual suppression or ‘excessive evacu-
ations’ (Lebreton, 1868). Abel Jorda˜o had no doubts that all the
epidemic outbreaks observed were ‘[the] progeny of hysteria [. . .]’
(Jorda˜o, 1865) and Motta fully supported this idea. Both base their
conclusions on the social circumstances surrounding the admission
of the children to the asylum, the dietary and hygienic conditions,
rigorous education and excessive religious practice, which would
contribute to the creation of a ‘hysterical constitution’. Even the
initial clinical complaint—pain—was judged to be a ‘hysterical
arthralgia’ or ‘myosalgia’. Admittedly, there were other phenom-
ena, such as the ocular findings, which could not be explained so
simply.
The second entity under consideration was the so-called ‘reflex
paralyses’ that had been recently proposed by Charles-E´douard
Brown-Se´quard (1817–94) (Brown-Se´quard, 1861) (Fig. 3). In
reflex paralysis, a peripheral lesion causing excessive irritation of
sensory nerves induced a reflex vasoconstriction of spinal cord pial
vessels at the level of the injury, resulting in a temporary loss of
adequate blood supply that would therefore cause motor paralysis
and sensory abnormalities (Lopez Pinero, 1983c). Years before,
Foville had already proposed such a causal link between nervous
dysfunction and the status of blood flow in the nervous system
(Lopez Pinero, 1983b). Brown-Se´quard went further, producing
original experimental animal data in which stimulation of periph-
eral nerves caused spinal vasoconstriction, and citing several sup-
porting clinical phenomena such as paraplegia after renal
inflammation, lesions of the uterus or intestine, hemiplegia
caused by pneumonia, blindness resulting from frontal nerve le-
sions, limb paralysis after gunshot wounds and so-called ‘reflex
inflammations’ (Brown-Se´quard, 1861). In the Ajuda epidemics,
the inducing phenomenon would be the gluteal pain which ‘[. . .]
by an anomalous neuralgia of the posterior branch of the last
lumbar roots [. . .]’ (Gomes, 1865b) would result in a dysfunction
of the lumbar spinal cord. Haemeralopia might be a reflex paralysis
of vision caused by excitation of the frontal nerves by the ‘[. . .]
intense gas lighting in the Asylum [. . .]’ (Barbosa, 1865), and the
vomiting a similar phenomenon caused by irritation of gastric
nerves.
Gomes was the main defender of this theory and Motta its main
opponent. In fact, he goes as far as emphatically saying that ‘This
new nosological entity seems to me an exalted concept of the
author, a truly utopian idea [. . .] I think this doctrine unsustainable
before reasoning, and in the presence of physiology [. . .]’ (Motta,
1865), and more diplomatically: ‘It seems to us that this doctrine
can never be grouped with the most beautiful conquests of
the human spirit, which before being received and acclaimed
had to fight fiercely to vanquish violent opposition. [. . .] If
[Brown-Se´quard] was not for so many reasons a respectable and
known doctor, he would surely not build his reputation by invent-
ing this reflex paralysis fable [. . .]’ (Motta, 1866).
Finally, and although taking a similar view to Gomes’s that hys-
teria was a concept too vague and abused to be useful, Barbosa
preferred to classify the clinical phenomena under the designation
of peripheral paralyses that Jaccoud had recently proposed
(Jaccoud, 1864). Unlike the modern concept of peripheral paraly-
sis, Jaccoud was not referring to lesions of the peripheral nerves or
nerve roots; instead, according to him, such paralyses occurred
when excessive irritation of the peripheral nerves led to an ex-
haustion of the capacity of the spinal cord to transmit nerve im-
pulses, ‘un e´puisement de l’excitabilite´ des centres nerveux par
une excitation continue’ or ‘neurolysis’ (Dechambre, 1885). As
we saw above, Jaccoud would go on to propose the existence
of a category of ‘peripheral neuroses’ which included cases of
neuralgia, anaesthesia, hyperkinesia and akinesia (Lopez Pinero,
1983b). Barbosa’s theory, therefore, is that nervosism had led to
a depletion of nervous ‘energy’, which, compounded with exces-
sive peripheral excitation, caused a full-blown central nervous
system dysfunction resulting in varied clinical manifestations of
which paralysis was the most extreme.
The Ajuda epidemics: modern
view and alternative
explanations
It must be emphasized that this debate is very much a product of
its historical moment. The diversity of clinical entities and proposed
diagnosis seem confusing to the modern reader, unclear and im-
precise, incompatible with the pathophysiological framework that
we nowadays recognize. They do, however, provide a portrait of
mid-19th-century neuropsychiatry, a period that was witnessing
major conceptual changes in this clinical area. It should be said
that the contemporary view of these types of epidemics was also
very much influenced by two other similar outbreaks in preceding
decades in France, which were frequently referred to during the
debate. First, the so-called ‘Paris epidemic’ of acrodynia in
1828–32, which consisted of pain and paresthaesias in the extre-
mities (mainly lower limbs), associated with other manifestations
such as paralysis and cutaneous lesions in the same locations and
gastrointestinal problems (Genest, 1829); and second, the epidem-
ic of ‘catalepsy’ and sensory problems occurring in 1847 in the
Maison de Re´fuge du Bon Pasteur of Amiens, in which 22 females
were affected (Sandras, 1851). As in the Ajuda epidemics, the
circumstances appeared similar: an outbreak of ‘nervous’ disease,
combining motor and sensory problems, having in common its
appearance in a religious community; similar explanations were
provided for both these episodes, and they were finally attributed
to hysteria and labelled as ‘nervous epidemics’. This was seen at
the time as an argument for favouring a similar interpretation for
the Ajuda epidemics.
One interesting realization is that in no case do the authors refer
to the potential role of direct lesions in the peripheral nervous
system in discussing these epidemics. Even Jaccoud’s theory of
peripheral paralysis is entirely alien to our present view of periph-
eral nerve disorders and a direct heir of Broussais’s concept of
‘morbid sympathies’ (Lopez Pinero, 1983b, c). Simply, peripheral
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