The winter of our discontent

Literary Allusions 
 
Literary allusions along with biblical ones constitute the largest and most 
important group of allusions in the novel. This group includes allusions of various 
types and forms of actualization. Allusions to particular works of different authors 
and in different genres, etc. belong here. Shakespearian allusions are quite numerous 

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in this group. The title of the novel is part of the quotation from Shakespeare's play 
“Richard III”. The complete quotation appears in the novel twice: in original and 
modified versions. Both times it is used by the main character and narrator Ethan 
Hawley. This quotation is used to mark the essential moments in the narrative. So it 
may be called the dominant allusion. 
The first time Ethan pronounces this quotation at the end of the first chapter of 
the novel when he has got hold of his friend's land by cheating and betraying him. 
Having done this, he has also outwitted the local banker Mr. Baker. Here allusion to 
Shakespeare's “Richard III” marks Ethan's first success on his way to money, higher 
social position and moral degradation. 
“Afterwards I cleaned the whole store, even corners long neglected and 
choked with flug, I sang too: 'Now is the winter of our discontent. Made glorious 
summer by this 
sun
 of York'.” 
(Steinbeck, 1985: 211). 
The second time Ethan uses the modified variant of the quotation is almost at 
the end of the novel when he congratulates his son on the victory in the National 'I 
love America' contest. But it turns out a little later that his son's success also 
involves dishonesty and 
plagiarism
. His son's disgraceful behaviour causes even 
more suffering and torment to Ethan than his own immoral deeds. 
“Just before the cake I toasted the young hero and I wished him luck and I 
finished, 'Now is the winter of our discontent made glorious summer by this 
son
 of 
York'
” (Steinbeck, 1985: 346). 
Thus allusion in the title of the novel figuratively summarizes its contents and 
highlights the author's discontent with the moral state of the American nation. The 
pronoun 'our' in the title has a generalizing function. It means the discontent of not only 
the author, but also of his contemporaries and the characters of the novel. Later in the 
text this very allusion relates the author's general message to the concrete events of the 
novel and the actions of the characters, establishes parallels between past and present. 
There are several allusions to Shakespeare's other works in the novel, namely 
to “The Two Gentlemen of Verona,” “Hamlet,” “Richard II,” “Julius Caesar,” 
“Antony and Cleopatra,” “Romeo and Juliet.” 
Most of the Shakespearian and other literary allusions are made by Ethan 
Hawley and some of them by his friend Danny Taylor. This fact testifies to their 
common social background, upbringing and education. They are both from old and 
respectable local families, dating back to the first American coloni0sts. They both 
studied at the best American educational establishments. However, unlike Ethan who 
graduated from Harvard, Danny was expelled from the Naval Academy and became 
a drunk. Sometimes Ethan and Danny allude to the same lines from certain literary 
work but in slightly different ways. 
“... Right now – my strength it is the strength of ten because the bottle's here”
(Steinbeck, 1985: 16). 
“My guilt is as the guilt of ten because I am a skunk” 
(Steinbeck, 1985: 313). 
Both examples are modified quotations from Alfred Tennyson's poem “Sir 
Galahad.” Ethan and Danny allude to the following lines from this poem: “My strength 
is as the strength of ten because my heart is pure.” The first modification belongs to 
Danny, the second- to Ethan. I think Ethan is more inventive in his alluding technique. 
As Ethan is the central character in the novel, allusions are concentrated in his 
speech. They contribute to his characterization in different respects. Thus, for 
example, we know that Ethan studied humanities at Harvard, in particular languages 

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and literature. He is well-read and likes to play on words. He uses language 
creatively. His linguistic creativity reveals itself in the way he alludes to literary 
works of different authors and genres. The examples given below will make my 
point clear.