women’s residential college at Cambridge. Three years later, in 1890, she
was promoted to lecturer in chemistry at Newnham where she remained until
her retirement in 1913. When she arrived at the college in 1887, “women
students were not admitted to the University Chemical Laboratory until they
had passed Part 1 of the Tripos, and thus Miss Freund was entirely
responsible for the [initial] laboratory training of the majority of her
students, many of whom came up to College with little or no knowledge of
chemistry” (2).
Portrait of Ida Freund by permission of Newnham College Archives, Cambridge
Freund’s teaching duties appear to have left her little time for research, she
neither studied for a master’s degree nor a doctorate. Her only published
paper was The effect of temperature on the volume change accompanying
neutralization in the case of a number of salts at different concentrations (3).
This is a meticulous, substantial fifty-eight page paper, written in English
and translated into German for publication and complete with many tables of
results.
Freund did, however, write two chemistry textbooks. It is these we look to
first for evidence of her approach to teaching, and any influence she may
have had in the chemistry taught in schools and colleges in the early
twentieth century.
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Freund's chemistry texts
Freund’s first textbook, The study of chemical composition: an account of its
method and historical development with illustrative quotations (4), was
published in 1904. This was a partial history of chemistry, concentrating on
the development of ideas such as the periodic law, valency, the atomicity of
matter and the Cannizzaro system of atomic masses. The book was written
as a text for teachers who wanted to achieve a deeper insight into the topics
in their syllabuses. For its time it was remarkably up to date, with sections
on the electron, radioactivity and the noble gases. Indeed, a reprinted edition
in 1968 suggests a continuing influence, and today it might profitably be
read by individuals interested in the history of chemistry. According to
historian M. M. Pattison Muir (5), this book was “among the really great
works of chemical literature” and perhaps in its time, it was. But chemistry
moves on and the genesis of chemical ideas appeals only to the select few,
mainly historians of chemistry, and her book today is largely overlooked.
Freund’s second textbook, The experimental basis of chemistry: suggestions
for a series of experiments illustrative of the fundamental principles of
chemistry (6), was published posthumously in 1920, and gives more of a
flavour of her approach to teaching. In its preface, editors A. Hutchinson and
Mary Beatrice Thomas (one of her students and a lecturer at Girton College)
suggest that in writing it: “Miss Freund was attempting to bring to the notice
of other teachers her views as to the manner in which students may be
helped to realise that chemistry is a science based on experiment, and that
logical interpretation of experiments leads directly to the generalisation
known as the laws of chemistry” (2).
Thomas says of her approach that: “(she) had a dread of thoughtless
experiments and slipshod thinking, and that she felt strongly that much that
passed for training in science had little relation to scientific method and was
of small educational value.” Certainly, rigour was Freund’s strong point. In
her description of a method to find the mass (D) of one litre of HCl gas at
0
o
C and 760mmHg she applies the rather daunting equation:
She then worries over the fact that her (or her students’) results gave D =
1.688 (leading to a relative molar mass for HCl of 37.8), significantly
different from the 1909 accepted value of 1.639 (RMM for HCl of 36.7) (6).
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Freund’s approach to teaching chemistry was certainly experimentally
based, though she had little patience with Henry Armstrong’s heuristic
approach that pupils should discover chemistry like front-line researchers.
According to Freund: “[This] would have us believe that in the course of
some couple of hours’ work the average pupil can definitely correlate an
observed effect with its cause, can discover the nature of a chemical
relationship, or can prove a law” (6).
By permission of Newnham College Archives, Cambridge
Instead, Freund advocated the approach favoured by Wilhelm Ostwald in
which: “The main facts of chemistry are dealt with in the form of a dialogue
between a teacher and a pupil. The method is heuristic in its truest ... sense,
but there is ... no pretence about what the pupil really accomplishes for
himself and what is done for him. Thus in the investigation of the effect of
varying pressure on the volume of a definite quantity of air ... the results
[are] recorded in tabular form:
Pupil: What is the use of that?
Teacher: I want to show you
how to discover a law of nature. And when,
after a number of explanations ... and trials, the relation pv = constant has
been formulated:
Teacher: Right. Now you have found the law which connects the pressure
and volume of air with each other, or makes them dependent on each other.
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Pupil: I should never have found that out without your help.
Teacher: I quite agree.
Pupil: I say, did you find it out by yourself?
Teacher: No. An English physicist named Boyle discovered it more than 250
years ago, and it now goes by the name of Boyle’s Law” (6).
Freund goes on to say: “Surely, therefore, the more honest, intellectually
more bracing and eventually more fruitful course is to sweep away all
delusions as to what pupils can discover for themselves, and further to
impress on them at as early a stage as possible the fundamental difference
between the ‘illustrative experiments’ they perform and real research” (6).
So this is it. Freund’s experiments were designed to demonstrate chemical
truths. There was nothing new in this, and until Armstrong’s version of
heurism, this was the traditional aim of most experimental work. And largely
it persists today in our teaching. Freund’s contribution was to contextualise
almost exhaustively, the experiments her pupils did, and have them perform
them with such rigour that the chemical truths were as unambiguous as
possible.
The disadvantage of this approach, however, was that pupils progressed
slowly which led George Fowles, a distinguished chemical author of the
1930s-50s, to comment on her text: “This work, though full of helpful
suggestions, arguments, and keen criticism, constitutes in itself a most
weighty objection (to her) method. For in a course intended for university
students, and occupying 400 closely packed pages, the author arrives no
further than the law of multiple proportions” (7).
Former pupils
In our search for evidence into the extent of Freund’s influence on chemical
education, we now turn to testimonials of past students, some of whom later
went on to become chemistry teachers or lecturers themselves. Their
comments suggest that her work was influential in promoting the subsequent
entry and acceptance of women into academic and research careers.
A former student writes: (8) “In my day Miss Freund reigned supreme in the
chemistry lab in the garden.” (The old laboratories were restored in the
1990s and are now used for concerts, plays and exhibitions.) “She was a
great character - Austrian by birth, she wrote excellent English but never
managed to speak it. She would break off a sentence and say, ‘Have I got
you wiz me in zat?’; and on one occasion when a student had had a little
argument with her she said, ‘Now, Miss X, have I got you wiz me in the
hydrochloric acid?’ Every year just before the Tripos examination she would
summon her chemistry students to do some special study. It was of
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