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Americanized without being aware of their own identity. This is threatening. It is
even more threatening than the Russian influence. During the past 150 years the
Russian Empire was not able to make Azerbaijan a Russian- speaking country.
America will be able to make Azerbaijan an English-speaking country in few years
(Tokluoglu, 1990:722).
What makes Azerbaijanian distinct? In the early twentieth century, secular
Azeri intellectuals tried to create a national community through political action,
education, and their writings. Ideas of populism, Turkism, and democracy were
prevalent in that period. As a reaction to the colonial regime and exploitation that
was expressed in ethnic terms, the formation of Azeri national identity had elements
of both Islamic and non-Islamic traditions as well as European ideas such as
liberalism and nationalism. The idea of an Azeri nation also was cultivated during
the Soviet period. The written cultural inheritance and the various historical figures
in the arts and politics reinforced claims to independent nationhood at the end of the
Soviet regime. During the decline of the Soviet Union, nationalist sentiment against
Soviet rule was coupled with the anti-Armenian feelings that became the main
driving force of the popular movements of national reconstruction. Azerbaijanis
faced the first challenge of national self-determination in 1905 and in presence of the
renewed Armenian- Azerbaijani conflict over the Upper Karabakh, brought up the
second challenge of national self-determination for Azerbaijani identity.
Gender identity. National identity cannot be fully understood without
reference to gender identity. We are in many subtle as well as open ways defined by
our gender, as we are many of our opportunities and rewards in life. Gender identity
is inevitably more attenuated and taken for granted than other kinds of identity in the
modern world. Geographically separated, divided by class and ethnically
fragmented, genders must ally themselves to other, more cohesive identities.
One's innermost concept of self as male or female or both or neither- how
individuals perceive themselves and what they call themselves. Gender identity - the
degree to which a person has awareness or recognition that he or she adopts a
particular gender role. Gender identity refers to how one thinks of one's own gender:
whether one thinks of oneself as a man (masculine) or as a woman (feminine.)
Society prescribes arbitrary rules or gender roles (how one is supposed to and not
supposed to dress, act, think, feel, relate to others, think of oneself, etc.).
A model of identity built on gender dichotomy was more easily accepted by
the 1970s because American feminist research emphasized gender difference in the
rearing of children. The most influential statement was Nancy Chodorow’s book,
“The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender”
(1978). Chodorow’s argument linked the gender division of labor, which assigned
the task of caring for babies and infants exclusively to women, with the paths of
development for girls and boys that resulted from their different emotional situations
in early childhood. Girls, brought up by a parent of their own gender, tend to have
less distinct ego boundaries. When they grow up they have a stronger motivation for
nurturing children. Boys, pushed towards separation from a mother responding to
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the gender distinction, tend to have more difficulty in establishing gender identity,
and stronger boundaries to the self in adulthood (Chodorow, 1978:173-178).
Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behavior, activities and
attributes that are considered appropriate for women or men in a particular society.
It focuses less on biological attributes and more on masculinity and femininity, the
sociological, cultural and psychological characteristics associated with our sex.
There are two main aspects of gender: gender roles and identity. Identity is the
individual's psychological relationship to particular social category systems. The
commonest way of understanding the presence of gender in personal life is through
the concept of ‘gender identity’. It is used with the meaning of ‘sameness’, though
sometimes in the sense of personal existence, or to emphasize ‘who I am’ as against
‘who I am not’ (Connel, 2011:104-106).
Gender identity is how people feel about and express their gender and gender
roles- clothing, behavior, and personal appearance. One’s gender identity can be the
same or different than the sex assigned at birth. Individuals are conscious of this
between the ages 18 months and 3 years. Most people develop a gender identity that
matches their biological sex. So, in many cultures the social construction of gender
categories is mainly, formulated on the basis of biological sex. For some, however,
their gender identity is different from their biological or assigned sex. Some of these
individuals choose to socially, hormonally and/or surgically change their sex to more
fully match their gender identity.
Gender identity, in nearly all instances, is self-identified, as a result of a
combination of inherent and extrinsic or environmental factors; gender role, on the
other hand, is manifested within society by observable factors such as behavior and
appearance. For example, if a person considers himself a male and is most
comfortable referring to his personal gender in masculine terms, then his gender
identity is male. However, his gender role is male only if he demonstrates typically
male characteristics in behavior, dress, and/or mannerisms.
During Nayereh Tohidi’s research visit to Baku the author asks a school
counselor Rasima Samedzadeh about Azerbaijan women gender identity, she
responds, “How do I define Azerbaijanian women’s identity? This is very
complicated, because Russia, Iran, Turkey, the Caucasus, and Islam have influenced
us… Every day we have to wear different masks and juggle multiple identities. You
cannot find a single or typical Azeri female identity. You cannot make a
generalization which fits the whole population of Azeri women since we vary so
much”. Nayereh Tohidi thinks her voice is in line with a new range of women’s
informal groups organized “from below” providing social networks of self-help,
charity and relief, support for peace and environment, as well as defense of women’s
rights. Despite all the odds, Azeri women are trying to enhance their agency by
overcoming authoritarian conformism and by developing new political skills,
feminist visions, and autonomous initiatives. Although they are not opposing the
gender-designated role of cultural representation, they are trying to expand and
redefine the parameters of Azeri authenticity (Tohidi, 1996:111-123).
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Variation within gender categories is plain in the recent research on
masculinity and femininity. There is considerable evidence that there are multiple
masculinities and femininities within the same society, even within the same
institution, peer group or workplace, clan or family. That’s why we have to speak
not only on the masculinity or femininity but also diversity of masculinity and
femininity. Consequently, it is to be spoken of multiple gender identities. The
concept of identity has increasingly been used for claims made by individuals about
who or what they are in terms of difference from other people.
Women are main identity markers. As a borderland, geo-politically and
geo-culturally situated between the “East” (Asia) and “West,” (Europe), Azerbaijan
has a multifaceted national and cultural identity. It is among the most secularized
and relatively modernized Islamicate republics. The interplay between several
domestic and regional factors has shaped the gender dynamics and social status of
women in Azerbaijan, including, the Caucasian cultural and historic milieu; the
Islamic tradition; the Russian political and cultural influence; and the Azerbaijani
nationalism. The definition of womanhood, manhood and Azerbaijani national
identity in Soviet Azerbaijan were construed, in part, in comparison and contrast to
the perceived image of the Russian “other”. Women were expected to be the main
identity markers, the primary repositories of “authenticity” (asalat), tradition, ethnic
codes and customs that would Azerbaijani cultural boundaries from those of Russian
rulers (Tohidi, 2000:3).
In Azerbaijan, as in most other newly independent republics of the former
Soviet Union, the initial ethnocentric nationalism identified women and traditional
feminine roles and behavior codes as identity markers of “authentic” Azeri women,
placing women's political and civic activism within the limits of male-dominated
nationalist parties and centering it exclusively around nationalist causes. This pattern
has begun to be questioned by some women due to the interplay between the
national/local and international/global influences. Nationally, women face post-
Soviet conservative and regressive challenges to women's civil as well as social
rights; at the same time, women are influenced by global feminism, gender-sensitive
international donor agencies, and gender sensitization projects sponsored by the
United Nations (Tohidi, 2002:2).
Since preserving customs and traditions (adat va anana) was considered
largely the task of mother and grandmothers, Azeri women became important
carriers of their community’s ethnic identity. This had significant consequences for
women’s gender relations, their familial and domestic roles, and their mobility and
personal autonomy. Women as symbols of ethnic and national identity were realized
in the observance of the code of sexual honor (namus), patterns of sociality in public
places, and the ideals of femininity expressed as injelik (delicate speech and
demeanour) and evdarliq (domestic skills) (Farideh, 2002:187).
In constructing their identities, both a woman and a man interweave their
gender and nationality, together with categories such as social class, religion, family,
schooling, sexuality and morality. These categories, then, are closely connected,
indeed mutually defining, specifically in terms of the women’s past and present self-
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constructions. Interestingly, both gender appear to invoke (particular aspects of) their
national contexts as embodying or perpetuating traditional/conservative versions of
femininity and/or gender relations. In constructing their own current identities, they
typically position themselves outside, or in opposition to such gender ideologies.
Hence each woman’s identity is gendered and located within a national collective,
but is simultaneously resistant to (what she constructs as) the gender ideologies of
this collective.
In a nutshell, identity is about how individuals or groups see and define
themselves, and how other individuals or groups see and define them. Identity is
formed through the socialization process and the influence of social institutions like
the family, the education system and the mass media.
Reference
1. Aida - Mihaela Arosoaie, “WHAT IS IDENTITY ( A S W E N O W U S E T H E W O R D ) ?
1999, Department of Political Science, Stanford University
2. Anthias, F. and N. Yuval-Davis, “Racialized Boundaries: Race, Nation, Gender, Colour
and Class and the Anti-Racist Struggle”, 1992, London: Routledge
3. Bloom, William,“Personal Identity, National Identity, and International Relations”,
1990, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
4. Ceylan Tokluoglu, “Definitions of National Identity, Nationalism and Ethnicity in Post-
Soviet Azerbaijan in the 1990s”, Ethnic and Racial Studies Vol. 28 No. 4 July 2005
pp. 722/758
5. Charles Taylor, “The Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity”, 1989,
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
6. Heyat, Farideh, “Azeri Women in Transition: Women in Soviet and Post-Soviet
Azerbaijan”, 2002, London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon
7. Hogg, Michael and Dominic Abrams, “Social Identifications: A Social Psychology of
Intergroup Relations and Group Processes”, 1988, London: Routledge
8. James D. Fearon, Department of Political Science Stanford University Stanford, CA
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9. Nancy Chodorow, “The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology
of Gender”, University of California, 1978
10. Nayereh Tohidi, “The global-local intersection of feminism in Muslim societies: the
cases of Iran and Azerbaijan”, in the Journal of Social Research (An International
Quarterly of the Social Sciences), 69:3 (Fall 2002): pp. 851-887.
11. Nayereh Tohidi, “Gender and National Identity in Post-Soviet Azerbaijan: a Regional
Perspective”, Khazar Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 2000, Vol.3, No 2,
[4]
12. Nayereh Tohidi, “ SOVIET IN PUBLIC, AZERI IN PRIVATE”, Gender, Islam, and
Nationality in Soviet and Post- Azerbaijan Women’s Studies International Forum,
1996, Vol.19, Nos.1/2, pp. 111-123
13. Raewyn Connel, “Short Introduction, Gender in World Perspective”, 2011, Polity Press
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/national+identity
403
NATIONAL AND GENDER IDENTITY IN THE CONTEMPORARY
AZERBAIJAN CULTURE
Kifayat Aghayeva
Abstract
The focus of this research was based mainly on two broad themes: national
identity and gender identity in the context of modern Azerbaijan culture. Present
study investigates the contemporary trends in the development of Azerbaijani
national and gender identity. National identity is a compound term depending on the
country, may uphold one or more distinctive factors of collective mentality, such as
ethnicity, language, culture, or religion. The impact of these factors varies with
geographical and historical circumstances. Gender identity is defined as a personal
conception of oneself as feminine or masculine (or rarely, both or neither). This
concept is intimately related to the concept of gender role, which is defined as the
outward manifestations of personality that reflect the gender identity. The article
aims to analyze conflicting identities in post-Soviet Azerbaijan and the link between
emerging identities and the former ones. The former ones are rather complex since
they are not fixed, but vary in relation to different conceptions of national culture,
identity, ethnicity, gender, and nationality.
Key words: national identity, gender identity, culture
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