Ministry of higher and secondary

CHAPTER II. BORROWING AND TYPES OF LEXICAL BORROWING

Latin was one of the first languages to contact English and enrich it with borrowings. The English language came in contact with Latin several times. Accordingly, Latin borrowings are classified into some groups [11, 220].

1. 
   The first group is made up by the words which came into English during the period when the British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire (the 1st century B.C.) – Early Latin Loans. The tribes had been in contact with Roman civilization and had adopted several Latin words denoting objects belonging to that civilization long before the invasion of Angles, Saxons and Jutes into Britain. They are the names of fruit and vegetables: cherry (Lat. cerasum), pear (Lat. pirum), plum (Lat. prunus), pea (Lat. pisum), beet (Lat. beta), pepper (Lat. piper); words of everyday life: cup (Lat. cuppa), dish (Lat. discus), kitchen (Lat. coquina), kettle (Lat. catillus), inch (Lat. uncia), wine (Lat. vinum), chest (Lat. cista); names of buildings, fortifications, town parts, etc.: mill (Lat. molina), port (Lat. portus), wall (Lat. vallum), street (Lat. strata); geographical names: Lancaster, Manchester, Gloucester (Lat. castrum).
   
2. 
   The second group consists of many Latin words that came into English during the Adoption of Christianity in the 6th -7th centuries A.D. These are Later Latin Loans often called classical borrowings. Here belong learned Latin words connected with religion: altar, bishop, apostle, cross, candle, creed, disciple, feast, priest, monk, nun; education dean, chapter, scholar, magister and many others: marble, chalk, linen, elephant, lily, fiddle, palm, pearl, pine, etc.
   
3. 
   The third group includes words which penetrated into English during the Middle English period due to the Revival of Learning or the Renaissance (14th-16th centuries). These are mostly scientific words because Latin was the language of science at the time. They were not used as frequently as the words of the Old English period, therefore some of them were partially assimilated grammatically,
   

e.g. formula – formulae, memorandum – memoranda, minimum – minima, maximum – maxima. These words are mostly abstract words (major, minor,
filial, moderate, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to create) and numerous scientific and artistic terms (datum, status, phenomenon, philosophy, method, music). The words borrowed into English in the Renaissance period are referred to as Latin of the third period.

4. 
   The fourth group of borrowings from Latin (the Latest Latin Loans) embraces abstract and scientific words adopted through writing and constituting the main part of international vocabulary of English. Here belong a great many Latin abbreviations having English equivalents: e.g. (exempli gratia) – for example, i.e. (id est) – that is to say, v.v. (vice versa) – the opposite, etc. (et cetera) – and so on, cf. (confer) – compare and others.
   

1.