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that White males who were made aware of this narrative prior to testing performed significantly
worse on a mathematics assessment than White males in a control group (Aronson et al., 1999).
The fact that queuing a stereotype can affect even members of a historically dominant group
speaks to the power of such narratives.
The power of stereotypes is particularly striking when one considers the prevalence of
racial stereotypes about who can be good at math. Survey data suggest that while both
elementary and middle school students are aware of the “Asians are good at math” stereotype, as
well as the stereotype that Black and Latina/o students are not good at math, older students are
more likely to endorse these narratives (Nasir, O’Connor, & Wischnia, in progress). Although to
date little research exists on how these stereotypes impact student learning, there is evidence at
the high school level that they do come up in everyday classroom discourse among Black males,
and that this does influence their perceptions of which groups of students can and cannot succeed
in mathematics (Nasir & Shah, 2011; Nasir, 2011). Similar narratives about boys being better
than girls at math have also been shown to be salient to students (Cvencek, Meltzoff, &
Greenwald, 2011).
In addition to racial and gender narratives, the presence (or absence) of positive role
models also affects students’ access to productive identities in mathematics. In her research on
Black women who succeeded in mathematics, Moody (2004) found that one commonality
among her study participants was that they relied on what they call reinforcing agents, namely
individuals in their lives who told them they belonged in mathematics and who encouraged them
to persevere. These reinforcing agents gave study participants a vision of themselves as
successful doers of mathematics. Making available such identities has been one objective of the
ethnomathematics movement, which has sought to challenge the notion that mathematics
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originated only from European geographies (de Abreu & Cline, 2003). By tracing the roots of
mathematics to Africa and other non-European locales, this research tradition has attempted to
make “ownership” of mathematical knowledge more accessible to non-White students, thereby
increasing their access to productive mathematical identities.
In sum, we have discussed several barriers that differentially limit students’ opportunities
to learn mathematics, including lack of access to advanced math courses, lack of access to high-
quality curriculum, lack of access for English learners, and lack of access to productive
mathematical identities. Taken together, these issues present formidable, systemic challenges
faced by many mathematics students from historically marginalized groups. This examination of
the striking paucity of opportunities to learn for Black and Latina/o students, poor students, and
English learners puts the achievement gaps in Part 1 into clearer relief. Next, we explore what
the research tells us about approaches that have effectively fostered equity despite the challenges
we have described. As we do so, we turn to a deeper description of the practices and pedagogies
that fostered equitable outcomes at Railside.
PART 3: Effective Approaches to Foster Equity
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There is no panacea to make mathematics education effective for all students, let alone
students whose needs have frequently remained unmet. However some promising directions for
improving mathematics teaching and learning are being explored, tested, and refined (Confrey,
2011) Here we describe what is known to date about approaches to mathematics education that
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The literature pertaining to this area is sparse, yet in this section we attempt to summarize the research that is
available. As such, the reader should note that these studies at times lack clear outcome measures. Rather than report
on specific results from individual studies, we instead highlight promising directions for research focusing on
equity-driven pedagogy. Given the paucity of large-scale studies in this particular area, it is difficult to anticipate
what methods will work where and with whom, given that many of these components are contextual (i.e., variation
across student populations, teachers, contexts, etc.).
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produce positive outcomes for a diverse range of students. We find that these approaches tend to
include the following characteristics: high-quality curriculum, classroom practices to foster
equity, connecting to students’ cultural and real-world experiences and organizing for equity. Of
course, in reviewing this literature we recognize that positive outcomes are not simply the result
of equitable pedagogical practices, high quality curriculum, or supportive school or district
structures, but rather occur when all of these are working symbiotically (Schoenfeld, 2002). As
we discuss each characteristic, we reflect on the strategies and structures utilized at Railside.
High Quality Curricula
The features of high quality curricula that have been shown to be effective in supporting
the mathematics learning of students from marginalized groups include: cognitively demanding
tasks that emphasize conceptual understanding and mathematical reasoning (Silver & Stein,
1996), problems grounded in familiar contexts (Boaler, 2002a), and bridges between students’
informal knowledge and understanding of mathematical situations and the formal language of
mathematics (Davis et. al., 2007).
One example of a project that highlights the importance of high-quality curriculum is the
Quantitative Understanding: Amplifying student Achievement and Reasoning (QUASAR)
Project. The QUASAR project, an instructional intervention supported by on-going professional
development, investigated learning gains that resulted from use of mathematical tasks that
“involve multiple connected representations and allow multiple solution strategies” (Silver &
Stein, 1996, p. 486) Silver and Stein’s (1996) results showed substantial learning gains for Black
students, White students, and English learners in comparison to classrooms using more simple
tasks employing single strategies or representations. These gains were measured both in terms of
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