316
Social Science History
1978, 182–83. Quarterly Economic Review: Iran data for 1973–74: 1st quarter 1975, 16;
for 1975: 4th quarter 1976, 18; for 1976–77: 1st quarter 1978, 19; for 1977: 3d quarter
1979, 20.
44
Quoted by Shaul Bakhash during an interview with the author in Fairfax, VA,
5 October 1989.
45
Respondent 31, interviewed by the author in Istanbul, Turkey, 8 November 1989.
46
On the noneconomic roots of bazaari discontent, see Denoeux (1993: 147); for a con-
trasting view, see Parsa (1989: 101–3).
47
Dar-barah-yi qiyam 1978, 1:136–39; Davani 1998, 7:38–41; Zamimah-yi Khabar-
namah, 31 January 1978, 9–10, and February–March 1978, 28–32; and Hooglund
1990: docs. 1282, 1284, 1291.
48
Authors making this argument include Ervand Abrahamian (1982: 500–1, 505),
Jahangir Amuzegar (1991: 242–5), Said Arjomand (1988: 108–9), Ahmad Ashraf
and Ali Banuazizi (1985: 19–20), Hossein Bashiriyeh (1984: 104–7), Richard Cottam
(1979: 351), Michael Fischer (1980: 192), Robert Graham (1980: 210–11), Mehran
Kamrava (1990: 31–32), Moshen Milani (1994: 106–12), Misagh Parsa (1989: 171,
206), Anthony Parsons (1984: 60, 144), and Gary Sick (1985: 24). Surprisingly, the
literature on Iran has paid little notice to the concept of ‘‘political opportunities,’’
popularized in the work of Doug McAdam (1982: 40–43). On the relation of Alexis de
Tocqueville’s explanatory framework to the Iranian Revolution, see Kurzman 1996.
49
U.S. embassy memorandum of 10 July 1975 (Hooglund 1990: doc. 975); Moham-
medi-Nejad 1977: 103–16.
50
Other religious leaders refrained from criticizing the party, telling activists that it had
not yet done anything wrong. See interview with Hasan Musavi-Tabrizi in Shirkhani
1998a: 191.
51
Pronouncement of 12 March 1975 (Davani 1998, 6:457; Khomeini 1991, 1:354).
52
See Hajj-Sayyid-Javadi 1977; open letter of June 1977 signed by three opposition-
ists (Graham 1980: 259–61); open letters by writers, lawyers, and judges in July–
September 1977 (Index on Censorship [London], January–February 1978, 18–24).
53
Abdul-Karim Lahidji, interviewed by Maryam Shamlu in Paris, 4 and 26 January
1985 (Foundation for Iranian Studies Program of Oral History, Bethesda, MD, tran-
script, 57).
54
Shapur Bakhtiyar, interviewed on 3 July 1977 (Graham 1980: 241).
55
Quoted in U.S. embassy memorandum of 25 July 1977 (Hooglund 1990: doc. 1201).
56
Speech of 1 November 1977 (Shahidi digar 1977: 56–57), translated with the help of
Ashraf and Banuazizi 1985: 27. See also the slightly different version in Zamimah-
yi Khabar-namah, 8 January 1978, 23; reprinted in Khomeini 1982b: 39–40. Other
sources—Bazargan 1984: 26 (cited in Milani 1994: 110); and Khomeini 1991, 1:255
(cited in Parsa 1989: 209)—give different dates for this speech. However, 1 Novem-
ber 1977 is most plausible because of references in the speech to recently received
condolences for the death of his eldest son, Mustafa.
57
Other revolutionaries later denied any such expectations, including Hujjat al-Islam
The Qum Protests and the Coming of the Iranian Revolution
317
Muhammad Javad Bahunar, interviewed in Iran in February 1980 by Christos P.
Ioannides (1984: 33): ‘‘Nothing good for us could come from America. We never had
any hopes or expectations that something positive could come from America.’’
58
One letter was planned in late 1977, in preparation for a visit to Iran by the secretary-
general of the United Nations, but it was not sent. Khurramabadi, interviewed in
Shirkhani 1998b: 122–23. Ayatullah Sadiq Khalkhali wrote to Amnesty International
in December 1978; Hamid Algar reported to the author that Khalkhali gave him the
letter in Paris and asked him to translate and forward it.
59
U.S. embassy memorandum of 12 December 1977 (Hooglund 1990: doc. 1253);
Bashiriyeh 1984: 112; Milani 1994: 111; Bazargan 1984: 26; Pakdaman 1986: 66;
Khabar-namah [The newsletter {Tehran}], November–December 1977, 1–7.
60
Poet and Writers Association organizer Ghulam-Husayn Sa idi, interviewed by Zia
Sedghi in Paris, 5 April 1984 (Harvard Iranian Oral History Collection, transcript
of tape 2, 17–19). See also the description in an anonymous letter from Iran in the
United Communists of Iran publication Zamimah-yi Haqiqat [Supplement to Reality],
January 1978, 1–2.
61
U.S. embassy memorandum of 1 February 1978 (Hooglund 1990: doc. 1296); and
the open letter of Taliqani’s lawyers, 23 August 1977, published in Khabar-namah,
November–December 1977, 1, 3.
62
U.S. embassy memoranda of 26 January and 1 February 1978 (Hooglund 1990: docs.
1291, 1296); SAVAK six-month summaries of religious opposition, 12 September
1977 and 14 March 1978 (SAVAK va ruhaniyat 1992: 190, 256).
63
Relatively few works on Iran identify the crackdown of November 1977 as an impor-
tant event; among those that do, see Foran 1993: 378–79; Graham 1980: 212; Parsa
1989: 179.
64
In the open portion of the meetings, Carter did not mention human rights at all,
according to a White House summary dated 16 November 1977, uncataloged in the
files of the National Security Archive, Washington, DC. In the private portion of the
meeting, Carter warned the shah about ‘‘serious problems in your country’’ (Carter
1989: 219). The White House then released a statement indicating that the two men
had reviewed the positive steps that Iran was taking on the matter of human rights
(New York Times, 17 November 1977, 3).
65
A student who was inside the hall (Respondent 3), interviewed by the author in
Berkeley, CA, 13 September 1989; Lafue-Veron 1978: 9–10; Iran: Vagues d’offensive
1978: 6–7; Zamimah-yi Khabar-namah, 1 December 1977, 12.
66
Abol Ghassem Lebaschi, an organizer of the event, interviewed by Habib Ladjevardi
in Paris, 28 February 1983 (Harvard Oral History Collection, transcript of tape 2,
20–21); Lafue-Veron 1978: 17–18; Richards 1978: 97–99; U.S. embassy memoran-
dum of 12 December 1977 (Hooglund 1990: doc. 1253); Zamimah-yi Khabar-namah,
1 December 1977, 9–11.
67
U.S. embassy memoranda of 1 February and 25 May 1978 (Hooglund 1990: docs.
1296, 1399); Safahati az tarikh 1984, [1]:58).