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of early childhood traumas revealed that there was no such thing as a traumatic
‘event’; rather, experiences in later life (by the process of deferred action), seemed
to determine which experiences were to retrospectively gain signifi cance as ‘trau-
matic’ (1958, p. 131). Yet elsewhere, discussing the same topic, Anna Freud also
described how actual observations of early history could lead to a different under-
standing of trauma-memories in adult analytic treatments. She noted that infants
may often repeat an action hundreds of times which in later life may be represented
as one traumatic event. She observed that, although ‘as analysts we realize that
past experience is telescoped in this manner, we are in danger of underestimating
the extent of the phenomenon, when not reminded of it by the result of direct
observation’ (1951, p. 157).
In appreciating the way in which analytic reconstruction could enrich direct
infant observation, as well as the way in which observation could enrich analytic
understanding, Anna Freud ultimately called for a ‘double approach’ (1958), in
which the integration of the two kinds of data—direct and reconstructed—was
to the ultimate benefi t of psychoanalysis. She argued that the incorporation of
observational data was essential if psychoanalysis was to develop a fully integrated
‘psychoanalytic child psychology’, and that this approach would lead to a better
understanding of the typical sequences of child development, especially in regard
to the earliest, pre-verbal stages of development (1965). She gives the example of
the infant’s reaction to the depression and emotional withdrawal of the mother early
in life, making reference to the observational work of Ribble (1943), Fries (1946),
Spitz (1945) and Bowlby (1951). While arguing that the impact of such experience
was fi rst ‘discovered’ through analytic reconstruction, Anna Freud argues that the
‘addition of the observational to the reconstructive method has raised this discovery,
in the course of less than twenty years, from the status of a hypothesis to that of
a near-certainty’ (1958, pp. 120–1). Combining these two approaches not only
increases our knowledge; it also lends added credibility to our fi ndings, because the
two methods can ‘check-up on each other’ (1965, p. 24).
The impact of this double approach can be seen clearly in Anna Freud’s own
work, both in the creation of the Provisional Diagnostic Profi le and, more especially,
the concept of Developmental Lines (A. Freud, 1965). It was here that Anna Freud
created her most complete synthesis of observational data with the fi ndings of
analytic reconstruction, in order to produce a psychoanalytically informed, observa-
tionally based way of assessing development which could be used by both analysts
and other workers involved in the care of young children. (For a fuller account of
Anna Freud’s concept of developmental lines, see Edgcumbe, 2000.)
The infl uence of the double approach can also be seen in the post-war activities of
child development centres such as Yale Child Study Center, where Ernst Kris began
to organize the systematic, longitudinal study of young children in the early 1950s,
as well as in the clinical and research activities of the Hampstead Child-Therapy
Clinic itself. For example, observations of four young twins in the Hampstead War
Nurseries was later complemented by psychoanalytic treatment during adolescence,
allowing sophisticated analysis, amongst other things, of the way in which external
events are elaborated in internal reality, the formation of cover memories and the
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distortion of memories by later developmental processes (Burlingham, 1963).
Moreover, the existence of a baby clinic, a number of toddler groups and a nursery
within the Hampstead Child-Therapy Clinic—all of which collected observations
of a large number of children who later went on to receive analytic treatment at the
Clinic—allowed a continuing interaction between direct observational data and that
derived from analytic treatment, with valuable results (e.g. Burlingham, 1972).
Such a co-ordination of these two ways of investigating early childhood became
one of the cornerstones of Anna Freud’s approach to psychoanalysis, and in being
one of the fi rst analysts to actually achieve such a ‘double approach’ in her own
working life, this is testament to Anna Freud’s contribution to the practice of infant
observation—and to the theory of psychoanalysis itself.
Translations of summary
Anna Freud: die Hampstead War Nurseries und die Rolle der direkten Kinderbeobachtung in der
Psychoanalyse. Die psychoanalytische Kinderbeobachtung hat eine lange Geschichte. Sie nahm ihren
Anfang im frühen 20. Jahrhundert, als die Psychoanalyse und die damals auftauchende Kindheitsforschung
in Freuds Wien miteinander in Kontakt kamen. Anna Freud, die als Pionierin die direkte Kinderbeobachtung
mit dem aktuellen, im Behandlungszimmer gewonnenen psychoanalytischen Wissen zu integrieren
versuchte, hat auf diesem Feld eine entscheidende Rolle gespielt. Ihren wichtigsten Beitrag zur Theorie
und Praxis der Kinderbeobachtung aber leistete sie im 2. Weltkrieg, als sie die Hampstead War Nurseries
gründete. In diesem Beitrag wird diese wichtige Phase ihrer berufl ichen Laufbahn detailliert beschrieben.
Der Verfasser diskutiert überdies deren Einfl uss auf Anna Freuds spätere Arbeit und untersucht den
theoretischen Beitrag, den Anna Freud in den Nachkriegsjahren zur Debatte über die Rolle der direkten
Beobachtung in der Psychoanalyse leistete. Er gelangt zu dem Schluss, dass Anna Freuds „dualer Ansatz“
(direkte Beobachtung plus analytische Rekonstruktion) als Methode der psychoanalytischen Forschung
und Ausbildung nach wie vor gewinnbringend genutzt werden kann.
Anna Freud: Los asilos de guerra de la Hampstead (Hampstead War Nurseries) y el papel de la
observación de niños en psicoanálisis. La tradición psicoanalítica de la observación infantil tiene una
larga historia, que se retrotrae a principios del siglo XX, cuando el psicoanálisis y el naciente campo
de ‘estudios de niños’ entraron en fructífero contacto en la Viena de Freud. Anna Freud desempeñó un
papel crucial en el surgimiento de este campo, como fi gura importante en la tentativa de integración de la
observación directa con los nuevos conocimientos psicoanalíticos que surgen de la práctica clínica. Pero su
principal contribución a la teoría y a la práctica de la observación de niños tuvo lugar durante la Segunda
Guerra Mundial, cuando fundó las Hampstead War Nurseries [Asilos de guerra de la Hampstead]. Este
artículo detalla este importante periodo de la carrera de Anna Freud, y discute el impacto que tuvo en su
trabajo posterior como psicoanalista. Asimismo el trabajo explora su contribución teórica en la posguerra al
debate sobre el rol de la observación infantil en el psicoanálisis, y concluye que el “doble enfoque” de Anna
Freud (observación directa más reconstrucción analítica) aún tiene mucho que ofrecer como método, tanto
para la investigación como para la formación psicoanalíticas.
Anna Freud : Les crèches de guerre de Hampstead et le rôle de l’observation directe des enfants en
psychanalyse. La tradition psychanalytique d’observation directe des enfants a une longue histoire, remon-
tant aux débuts du 20
ème
siècle, lorsque la psychanalyse et le champ émergeant d’ « études de l’enfant » se
sont rencontrés de façon fructueuse dans la Vienne de Freud. En tant que fi gure de proue de l’effort pour
intégrer l’observation directe dans la nouvelle connaissance psychanalytique qui se faisait jour à partir de
la consultation, Anna Freud a joué un rôle crucial dans l’émergence de ce champ. Toutefois, sa principale
contribution à la théorie et à la pratique de l’observation des enfants est venue au cours de la deuxième
guerre mondiale, lorsqu’elle a fondé les crèches de guerre de Hampstead. Le présent article décrit de façon
détaillée cette importante période de la carrière de Anna Freud, et discute son impact sur l’œuvre ultérieure.
Il explore la contribution théorique de Anna Freud dans les années d’après-guerre au débat sur la place de
l’observation directe en psychanalyse, et conclut que la « double approche » d’Anna Freud (observation
directe et reconstitution analytique) est toujours très pertinente en tant que méthode aussi bien pour la
recherche que pour la formation psychanalytiques.
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Anna Freud: gli asili di Hampstead ai tempi della guerra e il ruolo dell’osservazione infantile in psico-
analisi. La tradizione psicoanalitica dell’osservazione infantile diretta ha una lunga storia che risale agli
inizi del 20esimo secolo, con l’incontro, nella Vienna di Freud, fra la psiconalisi e gli studi allora emergenti
basati sull’osservazione diretta. Anna Freud rivestì un ruolo predominate nell’emergenza di questa nuova
disciplina e nel tentativo di integrarla con la conoscenza acquisita dalla prassi clinica in psicoanalisi. Il suo
maggior contributo alla teoria e alla pratica dell’osservazione infantile avvenne durante la Seconda Guerra
Mondiale con l’istituzione degli asili di Hampstead. Questo lavoro descrive in dettaglio questo periodo
importante della carriera di Anna Freud e esplora il suo impatto sul lavoro successivo della psicoanalista.
Vengono esaminati i contributi teorici che Anna Freud ha apportato, dopo la guerra, al dibattito sul ruolo
dell’osservazione infantile diretta nella psicoanalisi. Si conclude affermando che il ‘duplice approccio’ di
Anna Freud (osservazione diretta e ricostruzione analitica) ha ancora molto da offrire sia nel campo della
ricerca che in quello della formazione.
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