Academic oral presentation skills: instructors' perception of the final project presentation rating plan: I. Introduction II. Main part

Chapter 1. Procedures in presentation language material
1.1 Advise for language learning
There are three components to procedures that a teacher needs to keep in mind. One, procedures involve teaching activities such as drills, discussion, etc. Second, procedures also involve how a teaching activity is used such as cooperatively or individually. Lastly, procedures also include how feedback is given.
To say things simply, procedures involves the presentation of information, the practicing of new skills, and the giving of feedback. In other forms of teaching, procedures would be the equivalent of instructional design in that it focuses on the delivery and use of content.
Examples of Procedures
Different methods have different procedures. For now, the point is just to provide examples of various types of procedures without focusing on a particular method.
Presentation-Sharing information directly, indirectly, or some other way with students
Practice–This can take the form of any assignment that requires the students to use something they have just learned.
Checking-Providing students with correct answers or guidance
Homework-Additional practice of class material.
All methods have some or all of the points above in one form or another. What influences how these procedures are used is the approach that it is based on. For example, in grammar-translation method, the presentation procedure would always be direct and deductive. In other styles, the presentation procedure would be indirect and inductive. Despite these differences, it is likely that all language teachers would agree that some sort of presentation happens in all methods of language teaching.
Presentations skills and public speaking skills are very useful in many aspects of work and life. Effective presentations and public speaking skills are important in business, sales and selling, training, teaching, lecturing, and generally feeling comfortable speaking to a group of people.
Developing the confidence and capability to give good presentations, and to stand up in front of an audience and speak well, are also extremely helpful competencies for self-development and social situations.
Presentation skills and public speaking abilities are not limited to certain special people - anyone can give a good presentation, or perform public speaking to a professional and impressive standard. Like most specialisms, this requires preparation and practice.
The formats and purposes of presentations can be very different, for example: oral (spoken), multimedia (using various media - visuals, audio, etc), PowerPoint presentations, short impromptu presentations, long-planned presentations, educational or training sessions, lectures, and simply giving a talk on a subject to a group on a voluntary basis for pleasure. Even speeches at weddings and eulogies at funerals are types of presentations.
Yet every successful presentation uses broadly the essential techniques and structures explained here.
This article provides:
A guide to the process of creating effective presentations,
Tips and techniques for successfully delivering presentations
Explanations and methods for reducing presentation fears and stresses - notably through the use of preparation and control, to build confidence
Fear of Public Speaking and Presentations
You are not alone if the thought of speaking in public scares you. On the contrary.
Everyone feels fearful of presenting and public speaking to one degree or another.
Giving a presentation is very worrying for many people. Presenting or speaking to an audience regularly tops the list in surveys of people's top fears - more than heights, flying or dying.
Here is a popular saying (which features in many presentations) about giving presentations and public speaking:
"Most people would prefer to be lying in the casket rather than giving the eulogy."
I first heard a speaker called Michelle Ray use this quote in the early 1990s. The quote is often credited to Jerry Seinfeld, although the basic message is much older. For example (thanks Dr N Ashraf) the ancient Tamil work Thirukkural (also called Tirrukural) includes the following words in its aptly titled chapter, Fearlessness in an Assembly:
"Many are ready to even die in battle, but few can face an assembly without nerves." 
Couplet 723, from Thirukkural/Tirrukural, also called the Kural - a seminal guide to life and ethics attributed to the Tamil poet Thiruvalluvar, said to have lived between about 200-10BC.
I am grateful also to R Ersapah for an alternative translation of couplet 723, and below, a more modern literal interpretation:
"Many encountering death in face of foe will hold their ground; who speak undaunted in the council hall are rarely found."
In more modern language this means:
"Many indeed may (fearlessly) die in the presence of (their) foes; (but) few are those who are fearless in the assembly (of the learned)."
In a French translation, this is:
"Nombreux sont ceux qui peuvent affronter la mort face à leurs ennemis; rares sont ceux qui peuvent sans crainte se tenir devant une assemblée."
The title of Tirrukural's chapter 73 is: Not to dread the Council (French: Ne pas craindre les assemblees).
Couplet 727 says, amusingly and incisively:
"The learning of him who is diffident before an assembly is like the shining sword of an hermaphrodite in the presence of his foes..." (French: "Les connaissances de celui qui a peur des auditoires sont comme l'epee tranchante que tient l'eunuque en presence de son ennemi..." )
I am informed (thanks again R Ersapah) that all of chapter 73 fits the theme of public speech being one of the greatest challenges many people face in their lives.
This is further evidence that speaking in public is not just a modern fear - this fear has been in humankind for at least 2,000 years.
Incidentally the English translation of Tirrukural comprises various chapters such as: Domestic Virtues, Ascetic Virtue, Royalty, Ministers of State, The Essentials of a State. The English Translations are by Rev Dr G U Pope and Rev W H Drew. The French translation is by a Mauritian author M Sangeelee.
I'm always keen to receive and share old examples of public-speaking-and-fear analogies - if you know any please send them.
Understanding and Overcoming Fear
The key to managing and controlling anything is first to understand it, especially its causes.
The cause of fear is (a feeling of) insecurity and/or an unfamiliar or uncontrollable threat.
In the context of presentations and public speaking, this is usually due to:
Lack of confidence, and/or
Lack of control (or a feeling of not having control) - over the situation, other people (the audience) and our own reactions and feelings
And (in some cases) possibly a bad memory or experience from our past
The effects of these are heightened according to the size of the audience, and potentially also the nature of the audience/situation - which combine to represent a perceived uncontrollable threat to us at a very basic and instinctive level (which we imagine in the form or critical judgement, embarrassment, humiliation, etc).
This 'audience' aspect is illustrated by the following:
"Most of us would not feel very fearful if required to give a presentation to a class of 30 five-year-old children, but we would feel somewhat more fearful if required to give a presentation to an interview panel of three high court judges. So audience size is not everything - it's the nature of the situation and audience too."
As such audience size and situation are circumstantial factors which can influence the degree of anxiety, but they are not causal factors in themselves. The causes exist because of the pressure to command, control, impress, etc.
Confidence and Control
The two big causal factors (low confidence and control) stem typically from:
Inadequate preparation/rehearsal, and/or
Low experience.
If we have a bad memory which is triggering a fear response, then it is likely that the original situation we recall, which prompts our feelings of anxiety, resulted from one or both of the above factors.
Preparation and rehearsal are usually very manageable elements. It's a matter of making the effort to prepare and rehearse before the task is upon us. Presentations which do not work well usually do so because they have not been properly prepared and rehearsed.
Experience can be gained simply by seeking opportunities for public speaking and presenting to people and groups, wherever you feel most comfortable (and then try speaking to groups where you feel less comfortable). Given that humankind and society everywhere are arranged in all sorts of groups - schools and colleges, evening classes, voluntary groups, open-mic nights, debating societies, public meetings, conferences, the local pub, sports and hobby clubs, hospitals, old people's homes, etc, etc - there are countless groups everywhere of people and potential audiences by which you can gain speaking and presenting experience - this is not so difficult to achieve.
So experience, is actually just another manageable element before the task, although more time and imagination are required than in preparing and rehearsing a particular presentation.
Besides these preparatory points, it's useful to consider that fear relates to stress.
Stress can be managed in various ways. Understanding stress and stress management methods can be very helpful in reducing the anxiety we feel before and while giving presentations and public speaking.
Physiology, Chemistry, Stress
Fear of public speaking is strongly related to stress - see the causes of stress and stress management.
A common physical reaction in people when having to speak in public is a release of adrenaline and cortisol into our systems, which is sometimes likened to drinking several cups of coffee. Even experienced speakers feel their hearts thumping very excitedly indeed.
This sensational reaction to speaking in public is certainly not only felt by novices, and even some of the great professional actors and entertainers suffer from real physical sickness before taking the stage or podium.
So you are not alone. Speaking in public is genuinely scary for most people, including many who outwardly seem very calm.
Our primitive brain shuts down normal functions as the 'fight or flight' impulse takes over - see FEAR under the acronyms section (note: there is some adult content among these acronyms for training and presentations).
But don't worry - every person in your audience wants you to succeed. The audience is on your side (if only because they are very pleased that it's you up there in the spotlight speaking and not them).
All you need to do is follow the guidelines contained on this page, and everything will be fine. As the saying goes, don't try to get rid of the butterflies - just get them flying in formation.
Incidentally, the origins of this famous public-speaking/performing butterflies metaphor are typically given as "There is nothing wrong with stomach butterflies! You just have to get them to fly in formation!" - see the attribution information for the butterflies metaphor on the inspirational quotes page.
So, how do you calm the butterflies and get them flying in formation?
The answer (where butterflies equate to fear) is clear and simple in the following maxim:
To calm the butterflies you must be relaxed. To be relaxed you must be confident. To be confident you must be prepared and rehearsed.
Good preparation is the key to confidence, which is the key to being relaxed, and this calms the butterflies,(i.e., overcomes the fear).
Intermediate Speaking and Listening
Speaking and listening can still remain a challenge at the intermediate stage. At the basic level, learners practice speaking and listening primarily in order to come to terms with the sound system of language. At the intermediate level, learners begin to use these skills in order to interact with others. Speaking and listening at the intermediate level are social skills. It takes time to recognize social cues which are prevalent within a language speaking community.
Finding regular opportunities to have an interaction in your target language can be difficult. It is probably unlikely that you will have a friend who speaks the language with whom you can arrange regular conversations. However, there is a range of language learning communities online where you will be able to find a conversation partner. HelloTalk and Speaky are all sites where you can find a like-minded language partner for regular Skype interactions. At the intermediate stage, the flow of the conversation is likely to be disjointed, and there will many false starts. Do not let this discourage you! You will soon begin to see progress if you persevere. Your language partner is likely to be a fellow language learner and will understand your difficulties.
The vastness of the internet provides ample listening opportunities for the language learner.
Try to find listening materials which deal with topics that interest you. You might like to begin with content which has been produced with language learners in mind. There is an enormous number of podcasts and YouTube channels which focus on learners at different stages of their linguistic journey. These are often structured like lessons and aim to teach a specific piece of pronunciation or vocabulary.
Listening to content which has been produced for native speakers can be difficult at this stage. Divide your listening practice into active and passive listening. Focus intently on a one minute burst of dialogue, for example, and try to transcribe it and decipher the meaning. Combine this focused study with longer periods of passive listening. Perhaps you could listen to a new broadcast or an audio book while you are doing chores. You will perhaps only understand 15-20% of what you hear at the intermediate stage, but you will pick up new words and phrases here and there. You will gradually understand more with regular practice.
Listening practice, even if it is passive, will inform your speaking.
You will gain understanding of the rhythms of the language and you will learn about social cues in interaction. These are skills which which are difficult to learn from books.
As the world becomes ever more connected, the appeal of learning a new language is clear. Whether for business or pleasure, being able to communicate on an international level can bring many benefits. To support you on your learning journey, we take a look at some top tips and advice on how to learn a language. 
As well as looking at why learning a language can be beneficial, we also look at some of the most common ones to learn. If you’re trying to find out how long it takes to learn a language, we also explore how long your journey might take and how difficult it might be. Whether you’re new to this kind of learning or want to improve your efforts, you’re sure to find some useful information. 
Learning a new language can be rewarding on many levels, both personally and professionally. Although it can sometimes seem like a daunting undertaking, there are plenty of reasons to do so. What’s more, it’s never been easier to find the right resources and connect with native speakers and other learners. 
If you need further convincing, we’ve highlighted some of the potential benefits that come when you learn a new language: 
It enhances your brain
There have been many studies that examine how we process language learning in our brains. It’s a fascinating subject area, with some surprising findings. For example, the complex process by which we learn a language can increase white and grey matter volume in the brain. Some of these regions of the brain are associated with things like enhanced problem-solving, focusing, and switching between tasks.
One study even found that bilingual participants developed dementia 4.5 years later than monolingual ones, regardless of factors such as education, sex, occupation and dwelling. Clearly, there are some fascinating impacts on the brain when it comes to learning a language. 
It boosts your career prospects
Another area that has been studied in detail is how being multilingual can impact a person’s career prospects. Several surveys have shown that those who can speak more than one language have the potential to earn more money. 
In 2010, for example, The Guardian reported that in roles such as sales, marketing or technical support, learning another language can add between 10% and 15% to your wage. Of course, it also means that more opportunities are available to you. Whether you want to work in a different country or in a role that requires you to be multilingual, being proficient in a second language can help significantly.