18
A One-way ANOVA test was performed to investigate the influence of the respondents’
education levels on their filial piety scores. The outcomes showed that the effect of education level on
filial piety was barely statistically significant with F (2, 1071) = 3.06, p = .047 = .05. The outcome would
imply that a significant difference was found between the means of at least two levels of education.
Despite a statistically significant outcome, the actual differences in mean scores between the
education levels were very small with an effect size of .01 using η². Because the results of the test were
statistically significant for p < .05, a Tukey’s Post Hoc test was used to compare the education levels.
The Tukey HSD test revealed that there was no significant difference in the score on filial piety between
any of the education levels. The means scores differed no more than .16, as can be seen in the graph
below, so the differences were rather little.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
1
1,25 1,5 1,75
2
2,25 2,5 2,75
3
3,25 3,5 3,75
4
4,25 4,5 4,75
5
5,25 5,5 5,75
6
Distribution filial piety scores for education level
Primary
Secondary
University
2,76
2,90
2,80
2
2,1
2,2
2,3
2,4
2,5
2,6
2,7
2,8
2,9
3
Primary
Secondary
University
Means Plot of Filial piety score for Education levels
Mean score
19
The graph shows that secondary education level predicts the highest scores on filial piety. In
line with the results of the One-way ANOVA, the difference between the mean scores of the education
levels was not enough to be significant. This implies that attaining a higher education level would not
predict statistically significant different mean scores on filial piety compared to lower education levels.
In conclusion, these results suggest that education level cannot predict the score on filial piety.
EMPLOYMENT STATUS
There were 1083 respondents who answered the question regarding their employment status,
among whom the median level was ‘’self-employed’’, ranging full time employment – other. The
variable was divided into three groups: employed (N = 545), occupied (N = 498), and unemployed (N =
40). The graph below illustrates the distribution of scores on filial piety and shows how each
employment status scored compared to the statuses.
A One-way ANOVA test was performed to investigate whether of the respondents’
employment status can predict their score on filial piety. The outcomes showed that the effect of
employment status on filial piety was statistically significant with F (2, 1080) = 6.28, p = .02. The
outcome implies that a significant difference was found between the means of at least two
employment statuses. Despite a statistically significant outcome, the actual differences in mean scores
between the employment statuses were very small with an effect size of .01 using η². Because the
results of the test were statistically significant for p < .05, a Tukey’s Post Hoc test was used to compare
the employment statuses. The Tukey HSD test revealed that there is a significant difference in the score
on filial piety between employed and occupied (p < .01). However, no statistically significant
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
1
1,25 1,5 1,75
2
2,25 2,5 2,75
3
3,25 3,5 3,75
4
4,25 4,5 4,75
5
5,25 5,5 5,75
6
Distribution filial piety scores for employment status
Employed
Occupied
Unemployed
20
differences were found between pairs of the other employment statuses. The means of each category
are presented in the graph below.
The graph shows that the employed group predicts the highest scores on filial piety. In line
with the results of the One-way ANOVA, the difference between the mean scores of the employed
group and the occupied group was .17, enough to be significant. However, the mean scores of the
occupied group and the unemployed groups on filial piety was practically the same. This implies that
an increase in the hours of work from an unemployed status to an occupied status would not predict
statistically significant different mean scores on filial piety, but moving up to an employed status would
lead to a statistically significant raise in the mean score on filial piety. In conclusion, the results suggest
that employment status can predict the score on filial piety.
2,93
2,76
2,76
2
2,1
2,2
2,3
2,4
2,5
2,6
2,7
2,8
2,9
3
Employed
Occupied
Unemployed
Means Plot of Filial piety score for Employment status
Mean score
21
DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS
The results revealed some interesting findings on the expected predictors of filial piety. Three
hypotheses were developed in line with the theory and previous research. Each hypothesis will be
discussed hereafter.
Age
Age is positively associated with higher scores on filial piety
When looking at the first hypothesis, the results of the One-way ANOVA revealed a significant
relationship for age as a predictor of the score on filial piety. Remarkably, the group of Singaporean
women aged 38-57 years was found to be a statistically significant predictor of higher scores on filial
piety than the older group of 58+ years. There was no statistically significant difference between the
youngest age group 18-37 years and the group of 38-57 years. When relating these findings to the
hypothesis, the results were not in line with the expectations. The oldest age group scored significantly
lower on filial piety than any of the younger age groups, while the expectation was reversed. An
explanation could be that the selected indicators for filial piety in the present study do not reflect
properly upon age, but rather comply with values recognized among the younger age groups. For
example, the value of obedience and proper behaviour could decline among older women, leading to
lower scores on filial piety in the present study. In future research, taking into account the differences
between age groups in the practice of filial piety could lead to other results that are more in line with
previous research.
Education Level
Higher education levels are positively associated with higher scores on filial piety
Concerning the second hypothesis, the results of the One-way ANOVA revealed a significant
relationship for education level as a predictor of filial piety, but the outcome of the Tukey’s Post Hoc
test implied no statistically significant differences between the levels. Taken together, the education
level of Singaporean women was not found to be a predictor of filial piety, because of the similarity in
the mean scores of each sublevel. When relating these findings to the hypothesis, the results were not
in line with the expectations. The expected positive association between higher education levels and
the score on filial piety, derived from the importance of moral values and attention for the
development of filial piety in education. However, the modern practice of filial piety could have altered
its conception in training compared to a decade ago.
22
Employment Status
Hours of work are negatively associated with higher scores on filial piety
Relating to the third hypothesis, the results of the One-way ANOVA revealed a significant
relationship for employment Status as a predictor of filial piety. The employed status was found to be
the predictor of the highest scores on filial piety compared to the occupied and unemployed statuses.
When relating these findings to the hypothesis, the results were not in line with the expectations. The
expectation of a negatively associated relationship between hours of work and filial piety turned out
reversed in the present study. Previous research found that employment was very difficult to combine
with practices of filial piety, so a lot of women chose to do either instead of both. An explanation for
the results could be that the women who have their lives properly arranged and earn an income are
more able to provide for others. The practical problems in this situation could be solved by unknown
factors. It would seem very interesting to go more in-depth about these findings and about which
factors could contribute to combining work and filial responsibilities.
CONCLUSION
The present study attempted to set out theories on predictors of filial piety and examined
whether these theories proved to be true with an existing dataset from the Word Values Survey, wave
2010-2014. The main research question was: ‘’to what extent do the age, education level and
employment status of Singaporean women predict the degree of filial piety in 2010-2014?’’. In
response, the One-way ANOVA revealed that age and employment status were statistically significant
predictors of filial piety, but education level was not. More specifically, Singaporean women aged 38-
57 years with an employed status were statistically significant predictors of the highest scores on filial
piety. These remarkable findings indicate that traditional perceptions of filial piety are practiced in
modern times, where working women can succeed in both work and private life. Increased life
expectancy, increased levels of education and increased labour force participation rates pose practical
issues, which were addressed in the theory. The challenges are still ahead and relevant today.
However, if there is a will, there is a way. That has proved to be true for women in the modern, ageing
society of Singapore. With intergenerational understanding and compassion, a lot can be achieved.
The most important message that can be derived from the present study is that the willingness of the
middle-aged generation to care for elderly has not reduced, but that the state, society and family has
to work together to honor the Asian tradition.
23
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cheung, C.-K., & Kwan, A. Y.-H. (2009). The erosion of filial piety by modernisation in Chinese cities.
Ageing & Society, 29(2), 179-198.
Divale, W., & Seda, A. (2001). Modernization as changes in cultural complexity: New cross-cultural
measurements. Cross-Cultural Research, 35(2), 127-153.
Fan, R. (2007). Which care? Whose responsibility? And why family? A Confucian account of long-term
care for the elderly. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 32(5), 495-517.
Government of Singapore. (2015). Statistics Singapore - Infographics - General Household Survey.
Retrieved January 7, 2017, from http://www.singstat.gov.sg/docs/default-source/default-
document-library/statistics/visualising_data/highlights-of-ghs2015.pdf
Government of Singapore. (2015). Statistics Singapore - Infographics - Old-Age Support Ratio.
Retrieved January 7, 2017, from https://www.singstat.gov.sg/docs/default-source/default-
document-library/statistics/visualising_data/old-age-support-ratio2015.pdf
Government of Singapore. (2016). Age-Sex Specific Resident Labour Force Participation Rates Aged
15 Years and Over. Retrieved January 12, 2017, from
http://www.tablebuilder.singstat.gov.sg/publicfacing/createDataTable.action?refId=7908
Holroyd, E. (2001). Hong Kong Chinese daughters’ intergenerational caregiving obligations: a cultural
model approach. Social Science & Medicine, 53(9), 1125-1134.
Institute for Digital Research and Education UCLA. (2017). Annotated SPSS Output Ordered Logistic
Regression. Retrieved January 14, 2017, from UCLA:
http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/spss/output/ologit.htm
Jahan, M. (1999). Book Review: The Three Paradoxes: Working Women in Singapore. Research and
Practice in Human Resource Management, 7(1).
Lai, D. W. (2010). Filial piety, caregiving appraisal, and caregiving burden. Research on Aging, 32(2),
200-223.
Lee, J., Campbell, K., & Chia-Chan, A. (1999). The Three Paradoxes: Working Women in Singapore.
Singapore: Association of Women for Action and Research.
Liang-Lin, T. (2015). Five gender gaps Singapore women still face in 2015. Retrieved from The Straits
Times: http://www.straitstimes.com/opinion/five-gender-gaps-singapore-women-still-face-
in-2015
Liu, J. H., Ng, S. H., Weatherall, A., & Loong, C. (2000). Liu, J.H., Ng, S.H., Weatherall, A. and Loong, C.,
2000. Filial piety, acculturation, and intergenerational communication among New Zealand
Chinese. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 22(3), 213-223.
24
Mao, W., & Chi, I. (2011). Filial piety of children as perceived by aging parents in China. International
Journal of Social Welfare, 20(s1), S99-S108.
Margherita, A., O'Dorchai, S., & Bosch, J. (2009). Reconciliation between work, private and family life
in the European Union. Luxembourg: Eurostat.
Mehta, K. K. (2005). Stress among Family Caregivers of Older Persons in Singapore. Journal of Cross-
Cultural Gerontology, 20(4), 319-334.
Mehta, K. K., & Vasoo, S. (2002). Organization and Delivery of Long-Term Care in Singapore. Journal
of Aging & Social Policy, 13(2-3), 185-201.
Ministry of Manpower. (2015). Labour Force in Singapore. Retrieved January 7, 2017, from
http://stats.mom.gov.sg/Pages/Labour-Force-In-Singapore-2015.aspx
Ng, A. C., Philips, D. R., & Lee, W. K.-M. (2002). Persistence and challenges to filial piety and informal
support of older persons in a modern Chinese society: A case study in Tuen Mun, Hong Kong.
Journal of Aging Studies, 16(2), 135-153.
OECD. (2010). Singapore: Rapid movement followed by strong performance.
Pereira, A. A. (2006). Singapore’s Family Values: Do They Explain Low Fertility? Asia-Pacific
Population Journal, 21(1), 65-84.
Teo, P., Chan, A., & Straughan, P. (2003). Providing health care for older persons in Singapore. Health
Policy, 64(3), 399-413.
Vaswani, K. (2015). Women in the workplace: The Singapore way. Retrieved from BBC News:
http://www.bbc.com/news/business-34864993
Wang, Z. (2007). Postmodern Values in Seven Confucian Societies: Political Consequences of
Changing World Views. Japanese Journal of Political Science, 8(3), 341-359.
World Values Survey. (2012). World Values Survey Wave 6: 2010-2014 - V100. - Hard work brings
success. Retrieved January 10, 2017, from World Values Survey:
http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSOnline.jsp
Wu, T., & Chan, A. (2011). Older women, health, and social care in Singapore. Asia Europe Journal,
8(4), 513-526.
Yeoh, B. S., & Huang, S. (2009). Foreign Domestic Workers and Home-Based Care for Elders in
Singapore. Journal of Aging & Social Policy, 22(1), 69-88.
25
APPENDIX
Table 1
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach’s Alpha
N of Items
0.614
4
Table 2
Inter-Item Correlation Matrix
Schwartz: It is
important to
help people
living nearby;
to care for
their needs
Schwartz: It is
important to
this person to
always behave
properly; to
avoid doing
anything people
would say is
wrong
Schwartz:
Tradition is
important to
this person; to
follow the
customs handed
down by one’s
religion or
family
Schwartz: Being
successful is
important to this
person; to have
people recognize
one’s
achievements
Schwartz: It is
important to help
people living
nearby; to care for
their needs
1
0,305
0,327
0,325
Schwartz: It is
important to this
person to always
behave properly; to
avoid doing
anything people
would say is wrong
0,305
1
0,369
0,263
Schwartz: Tradition
is important to this
person; to follow
the customs handed
down by one’s
religion or family
0,327
0,369
1
0,121
Schwartz: Being
successful is
important to this
person; to have
people recognize
one’s achievements
0,325
0,263
0,121
1
26
Table 3
Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality
Variable
Group
Statistic
df
Sig.
Filial piety
0.978
1083
0.000
Age
18-37 years
0.984
427
0.000
38-57 years
0.976
396
0.000
58+ years
0.961
225
0.000
Education level
Primary education
0.917
205
0.000
Secondary education
0.984
579
0.000
University level education
0.979
290
0.000
Employment status
Employed
0.988
545
0.000
Occupied
0.961
498
0.000
Unemployed
0.925
40
0.011
Table 4
Skewness and Kurtosis values
Variable
Group
Skewness
Kurtosis
Filial piety
0.978
1083
Age
18-37 years
0.300
0.393
38-57 years
0.465
1.046
58+ years
0.678
1.894
Education level
Primary education
1.230
3.519
Secondary education
0.215
0.429
University level education
0.363
0.392
Employment status
Employed
0.130
0.164
Occupied
0.702
1.724
Unemployed
1.168
3.267
27
Histogram 1
Distribution of filial piety scores for Primary education level
Histogram 2
Distribution of filial piety scores for Unemployed status
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
1
1,25 1,5 1,75
2
2,25 2,5 2,75
3
3,25 3,5 3,75
4
4,25 4,5 4,75
5
5,25 5,5 5,75
6
Histogram Primary education
Filial piety
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
1,25 1,5 1,75
2
2,25 2,5 2,75
3
3,25 3,5 3,75
4
4,25 4,5 4,75
5
5,25 5,5 5,75
6
Histogram Unemployed
Filial piety
Dostları ilə paylaş: |