whose meaning has disappeared
,
a hundred times a day, words which
are nothing other than vain conventionalism. He will peddle holy things,
but just enough to avoid undermining faith in their sanctity and he will
take care to see that this trade is less obviously active where the people
are more keen-sighted. He will involve himself in terrestrial intrigue
and always be on the side of the powerful, on the sole condition that
those in power ally themselves with him. In a word, in all his actions, it
will be seen that he does not want to advance Religion through the
clergy but the clergy through Religion, and as so much effort implies
an aim and as this aim, in these hypothetical circumstances, cannot be
anything other than power and wealth, the definitive sign that the
people have been misled is when priests are rich and powerful.
25
The challenge to this “theocratic plundering” came through the invention of the
printing press which enabled the transmission of ideas critical of the power and
intellectual claims of the Church and gradually led to the weakening of this form
of organised, legal plunder. The Reformation, the Renaissance, and the
Enlightenment gradually exposed the “theological sophisms” for what they really
were - so many tricks, deceptions, lies, and contradictions - and many people were
thus no longer willing to be the dupes of the Church.
In a similar manner, Bastiat thought, the modern bureaucratic and regulatory
state of his day was, like the Church, based upon a mixture of outright violence
and coercion on the one hand, and trickery and fallacies (Sophisms) on the other.
The violence and coercion came from the taxes, tariffs, and regulations which were
imposed on taxpayers, traders, and producers; the ideological dimension which
maintained the current class of plunderers came from a new set of “political” and
“economic sophisms” which confused, mislead, and tricked a new generation of
“dupes” into supporting the system. The science of political economy, according to
Page 20
25
“1. The Physiology of Plunder” in Economic Sophisms II, pp. 20-21.
Bastiat, was to be the means by which the economic sophisms of the present would
be exposed, rebutted and finally overturned, thus depriving the current plundering
class of their livelihood and power: “I have said enough to show that Political
Economy has an obvious practical use. It is the flame that destroys this social
disorder, Plunder, by unveiling Trickery and dissipating Error.”
26
And in the
following essay on “The Two Moralities” Bastiat contrasts the role of “religious
morality” and “economic morality” in bringing about this change in thinking: “Let
religious morality therefore touch the hearts of the Tartuffes, the Caesars, the
colonists, sinecurists and monopolists, etc. if it can. The task of political economy is
to enlighten their dupes.”
27
Bastiat was skeptical that religious morality would be
successful in changing the views of those who held power because, as he pointed
out on several occasions, how many times in history have ruling elites ever
voluntarily given up their power and privileges? His preference was to strike at
power from below by opening the eyes of the duped and tricked with the truths
which political economy provided, to encourage doubt and mistrust in the justice of
the rulers’ actions, and to mock the follies of the political elite by using sarcasm and
the “sting of ridicule”. Bastiat summed up the job of the political economists as
“opening the eyes of the Orgons, uprooting preconceived ideas, stimulating just
and essential mistrust and studying and exposing the true nature of things and
actions.”
28
Page 21
26
“1. The Physiology of Plunder” in Economic Sophisms II, p. 7.
27
“II. The Two Moralities” in Economic Sophisms II, p. 43.
28
“II. The Two Moralities” in Economic Sophisms II, p. 45. In Molière’s play Tartuffe, or the Imposter
(1664) Tartuffe is a scheming hypocrite and Orgon is a well-meaning dupe.
viii.Conclusion
That Bastiat died at the age of 49 before he could complete his magnum opus
on economic theory, the Economic Harmonies, or even begin his second on “A History
of Plunder” was a major blow to the classical liberal movement in the 19th century.
The precocious economic insights he developed in his journalism and began to
explore in more depth in Economic Harmonies are starting to be recognised and
appreciated by modern scholars. There is evidence that Bastiat wasn’t just a
brilliant economic journalist but should be seen as a major economic thinker in his
own right, who was much ahead of his time - perhaps a couple of decades ahead of
the Marginal Revolution which broke out in the 1870s, and perhaps a century
ahead of his time as forerunner of the Public Choice school of the 1970s and
1980s.
29
Had he been able to complete his other planned work on Plunder this
would have truly made Bastiat one of the leading figures in the development of
social theory in the 19th century. He would have been able to extend the classical
liberal historiography which was being pioneered by Augustin Thierry with his
work on the Third Estate (Thierry, 1853) and much later after his death by his
friend the economist Gustave de Molinari in his works of economic sociology in the
1880s (Molinari, 1880, 1884). With a major economic treatise under his belt as well
as a history of plunder, Bastiat might well have turned into a kind of classical
liberal Karl Marx.
30
Page 22
29
See the recent assessment of Bastiat’s contribution by Robert Leroux, Political Economy and
Liberalism in France: The contributions of Frédéric Bastiat (Routledge Studies in the History of
Economics, 2011).
30
Gustave de Molinari, L'évolution économique du XIXe siècle: théorie du progrès (Paris: C. Reinwald
1880). Gustave de Molinari, L'évolution politique et la révolution (Paris: C. Reinwald, 1884). Augustin
Thierry, Essai sur l’histoire de la formation et des progrès du Tiers État suivi de deux fragments du recueil des
monuments inédits de cette histoire (Paris: Furne et Ce, 1853).
Bibliography
General Bastiat Resources
See the bibliography and other Bastiat resources at my website <
http://
davidmhart.com/FrenchClassicalLiberals/Bastiat/index.html
>.
The main Bastiat page at the Online Library of Liberty <
http://
oll.libertyfund.org/person/25
>.
Works by Bastiat
Frédéric Bastiat, Oeuvres complètes de Frédéric Bastiat, mises en ordre, revues et annotées
d’après les manuscrits de l’auteur. Ed. Prosper Paillottet and biographical essay by Roger
de Fontenay. (Paris: Guillaumin, 1st ed. 1854-55, 6 vols; 2nd ed. 1862-64, 7 vols.).
Frédéric Bastiat, The Collected Works of Frédéric Bastiat in 6 volumes, General
Editor Jacques de Guenin, Academic Editor David M. Hart (Indianapolis: Liberty
Fund, 2011). Volume 1: The Man and the Statesman: The Correspondence and Articles on
Politics (March 2011). Available online at <
http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/2393
>.
Volume 2. The Law, The State, and Other Political Writings, 1843-1850 (June 2012).
Frédéric Bastiat, Economic Sophisms, trans. Arthur Goddard, introduction by
Henry Hazlitt (Irvington-on-Hudson: Foundation for Economic Education, 1996).
<
http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/276
>.
Frédéric Bastiat, Economic Harmonies, trans by W. Hayden Boyers, ed. George B.
de Huszar, introduction by Dean Russell (Irvington-on-Hudson: Foundation for
Economic Education, 1996). <
http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/79
>.
Frédéric Bastiat, Selected Essays on Political Economy, trans. Seymour Cain, ed.
George B. de Huszar, with an introduction by F.A. Hayek (Irvington-on-Hudson:
Page 23
Foundation for Economic Education, 1975). <
http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/
956
>.
Other Primary Sources
Jeremy Bentham, Handbook of Political Fallacies, revised and edited by Harold A.
Larrabee. Introduction to the Torchbook edition by Crane Brinton (New York:
Harper Torchbooks, 1962).
The Works of Jeremy Bentham, published under the Superintendence of his
Executor, John Bowring (Edinburgh: William Tait, 1838-1843). 11 vols. Vol. 2.
THE BOOK OF FALLACIES: FROM UNFINISHED PAPERS OF JEREMY
BENTHAM. EDITED BY A FRIEND. <
http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/
1921/114047
>.
Ambroise Clément, “De la spoliation légale,” Journal des Économistes, No. 84, 15
juillet, 1848, pp. 363-374.
Charles Comte, Traité de législation, ou exposition des lois générales suivant lesquelles les
peuples prospèrent, dépérissent ou restent stationnaire, 4 vols. (Paris: A. Sautelet et Cie,
1827).
Charles Comte, Traité de la propriété, 2 vols. (Paris: Chamerot, Ducollet, 1834).
Charles Dunoyer, L'Industrie et la morale considérées dans leurs rapports avec la liberté
(Paris: A. Sautelet et Cie, 1825).
Charles Dunoyer, Nouveau traité d'économie sociale, ou simple exposition des causes sous
l'influence desquelles les hommes parviennent à user de leurs forces avec le plus de LIBERTÉ,
c'est-à-dire avec le plus FACILITÉ et de PUISSANCE (Paris: Sautelet et Mesnier, 1830),
2 vols..
Page 24
Charles Dunoyer, De la liberté du travail, ou simple exposé des conditions dans lesquelles les
force humaines s'exercent avec le plus de puissance (Paris: Guillaumin, 1845).
Gustave de Molinari, L'évolution économique du XIXe siècle: théorie du progrès (Paris: C.
Reinwald 1880).
Gustave de Molinari, L'évolution politique et la révolution (Paris: C. Reinwald, 1884).
Franz Oppenheime, The State: Its History and Development viewed Sociologically,
authorized translation by John M. Gitterman (New York: B.W. Huebsch, 1922).
<
http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/1662
>.
Augustin Thierry, Essai sur l’histoire de la formation et des progrès du Tiers État suivi de
deux fragments du recueil des monuments inédits de cette histoire (Paris: Furne et Ce, 1853).
Secondary Sources
David M. Hart, “Opposing Economic Fallacies, Legal Plunder, and the State:
Frédéric Bastiat’s Rhetoric of Liberty in the Economic Sophisms (1846-1850).”
<
http://davidmhart.com/Papers/Bastiat/Hart_BastiatsSophismsAug2011.html
>.
Robert Leroux, Political Economy and Liberalism in France: The contributions of Frédéric
Bastiat (Routledge Studies in the History of Economics, 2011).
Page 25
Biography of Frédéric Bastiat (1801-1850)
[Frédéric Bastiat (1801-1850)]
Frédéric Bastiat (1801-1850) was a pivotal figure in French classical liberalism in
the mid-19th century. He suddenly emerged from the south west province of Les
Landes to assume leadership of the fledgling French free trade movement in 1844
which he modelled on that of Richard Cobden’s Anti-Corn Law League in
England. Bastiat then turned to a brilliant career as an economic journalist,
debunking the myths and misconceptions people held on protectionism in
particular and government intervention in general, which he called “sophisms” or
“fallacies” [Economic Sophisms. Part I (1846), Economic Sophisms. Part II (1848)]. When
revolution broke out in February 1848 Bastiat was elected twice to the Chamber of
Deputies where he served on the powerful Finance Committee where he struggled
to bring government expenditure under control. He confounded his political
opponents with his consistent libertarianism: on the one hand he denounced the
Page 26
socialists for their economic policies, but took to the streets to prevent the military
from shooting them during the riots which broke out in June 1848. In the
meantime he was suffering from a debilitating throat condition which severely
weakened him and led to his early death on Christmas Eve in 1850. Knowing he
was dying, Bastiat attempted to complete his magnum opus on economic theory,
his Economic Harmonies (1850). In this work he showed the very great depth of his
economic thinking and made advances which heralded the Austrian school of
economics which emerged later in the century. Bastiat to the end was an
indefatigable foe of political privilege, unaccountable monarchical power, the
newly emergent socialist movement, and above all, the vested interests who
benefited from economic protectionism. He was a giant of 19th century classical
liberalism. Other important works include Cobden and the League (1845), Property and
Plunder (1848), The State (1848), Damn Money! (1849), What is Seen and What is Not Seen
(1850), and The Law (1850).
Page 27
About the Author
[David M. Hart]
Dr. David M. Hart, PhD (Cantab), M.A. (Stanford), BA (Hons) (Macqu.)
David is the Director of Liberty Fund’s Online Library of Liberty Project <
http://
oll.libertyfund.org
> and the Academic Editor of Liberty Fund’s translation of the
The Collected Works of Frédéric Bastiat in 6 volumes.
31
David Hart was born and raised in Sydney, Australia. He did his undergraduate
work at Macquarie University, Sydney, writing a thesis on the radical anti-statist
thought of the Belgian/French political economist Gustave de Molinari. After
spending a year in Germany studying German Imperialism and the origins of the
First World War at the University of Mainz, he completed an M.A. in history at
Stanford University. While at Stanford he worked on student programs for the
Institute for Humane Studies (when it was located at Menlo Park, California) where
Page 28
31
The Collected Works of Frédéric Bastiat in 6 volumes, General Editor Jacques de Guenin, Academic
Editor David M. Hart (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2011). Volume 1: The Man and the Statesman:
The Correspondence and Articles on Politics (March 2011). Available online at
oll.libertyfund.org/title/2393>.
he was founding editor of the Humane Studies Review. He received a Ph.D. in history
from King’s College, Cambridge on the work of two leading French classical
liberals of the early 19th century, Charles Comte and Charles Dunoyer who
pioneered a liberal class theory of history. He then taught for 15 years in the
Department of History at the University of Adelaide in South Australia where he
was awarded the University teaching prize. Since 2001 he has been the Director of
the Online Library of Liberty Project at Liberty Fund in Indianapolis
oll.libertyfund.org>. The OLL has won several awards including a "Best of the
Humanities on the Web" Award from the National Endowment for the Humanities
in 2006. His research interests include the history of classical liberal thought, war
and culture, and film and history.
His personal website is <
http://davidmhart.com
>.
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