Jaguar (
Panthera onca)
Care Manual
12
Association of Zoos and Aquariums
Table 4. Activity trends of one wild female jaguar (Schaller and Crawshaw, 1980)
Time of day
Hours
Active vs. Rest
Predawn
03:30–06:00
Active
Late
morning
09:30–12:00
Rest
After dusk
18:30–21:00
Active
Midnight hours
00:30–03:00
Rest
The home range size of the jaguar is almost certainly a function of relative prey availability. Where
food is more accessible, ranges seem to be smaller. It would be no surprise if water availability factors in
as well.
In Cockscomb Basin, Belize, females inhabit home ranges of about 10 km
2
(3.86 mi
2
). Ranges
overlap somewhat, and resident males inhabit home ranges of an average 33.4 km
2
(12.90 mi
2
), patrolling
through the ranges of several females at a time (Rabinowitz & Nottingham, 1986). In the Brazilian
Pantanal, home ranges have been established at 28
–
40 km
2
(17.4
–
24.9 mi
2
) for males, while females
moved over a minimum area of 10 km
2
(6.2 mi
2
). Their stability varies widely, shrinking in the wet season
and expanding in relatively dry weather. This may occur both as a physical result of seasonal flooding
and due to the concentration of prey forced into smaller areas by the same flooding. Male jaguars in the
Pantanal overlap their home ranges extensively and frequently move
to different areas, particularly
younger animals. However, females do not share home ranges during the wet season (Cavalcanti &
Gese, 2009).
Adult males typically had a home range that encompassed several females’ (two to three) territory
and would defend it against all jaguars except sub-adults and females (Schaller & Crawshaw, 1980). In
the event of a jaguar’s death, a jaguar that had a contiguous home range filled that vacant home range,
and that range was then filled in turn by a jaguar from an outside territory (Rabinowitz, 1986b).
Identifying their presence and demarcating their ranges seems to be accomplished vocally, visually,
and by scent. “Panthera” cats such as the lion (
Panthera leo), tiger (
Panthera tigris), and leopard
(
Panthera pardus) may delineate their ranges both directly by roaring and indirectly by scraping the
ground with their hind paws, defecating or urinating on scrapes or at prominent locations, clawing trees,
and spraying urine (Schaller, 1972). Schaller and Crawshaw (1980) report that a jaguar at Acurizal and
Bela Vista seem remarkably restrained about advertising their presence by such methods. They describe
spending many nights in the forest but never hearing the characteristic jaguar roar, a sequence of loud,
hoarse grunts. They followed fresh jaguar tracks for a total of 39 km (24.23 mi) without noting a scrape,
except once when a female had been chased by dogs. By contrast, a puma (
Puma concolor) at Acurizal
left 10 scrapes in 16 km (9.9 mi); two scrapes had been marked with urine and one with feces. The route
of tiger can often be detected from pungent urine marks left on bushes and trees, but at Acurizal and Bela
Vista, Brazil, Schaller and Crawshaw (1980) were unable to detect similar routes for jaguars. However,
Rabinowitz & Nottingham (1986) had no difficulty finding feces on cattle trails used by the jaguars in
Cockscomb Basin, Belize.
“Jaguar occasionally raked their claws down tree trunks, some
trees being used repeatedly, but since
puma showed similar behavior it was often impossible to ascertain which of the two cats had made the
marks." (Schaller & Crawshaw, 1980). Mondolfi and Hoogesteijn (1982) noted that jaguars would leave
claw marks on tree trunks, and it was believed that this was more to sharpen claws than to serve as any
form of communication. They mentioned Darwin’s observation in his
Journal of Researches from the
Beagle voyage that certain trees were marked at different ages by scratches made by jaguars.
Several authors describe jaguar vocalizations. Capstick (1981) reported that in some parts of the
Mato Grosso Region they are often vocal. In Venezuela they reportedly called often in some areas
(Mondolfi & Hoogesteijn, 1982). The vocalizations were described not as the true roar of a lion, but rather
as being composed of a series of five to a dozen repetitions of a short, hoarse coughing. This usually
starts with short guttural “uhs” that increase in volume until after several repetitions the final “uhs” have
appalling power and effect. Hunters in Venezuela often refer to this as “snoring.” The
male has a stronger
and more resounding call when compared to the softer call of the female, although the intensity of the
female call will increase when entering estrus. It was also reported that males would call more frequently
at the beginning of the rainy season. A female jaguar in heat will travel at night advertising her presence
for a mate with a series of five to seven grunts that can be heard late into the night or until sunrise. When
answering a female, the male’s call will be far more hoarse and guttural. The jaguar’s habit of answering
Jaguar (
Panthera onca)
Care Manual
13
Association of Zoos and Aquariums
a call of another individual is often taken advantage of by hunters who lure a cat by the use of a
corotear,
a call constructed out of a hollow gourd that is operated by either grunting into it or by pulling a piece of
rawhide through it to simulate the characteristic jaguar grunt. As Capstick (1981) tells it, this is a
device so
effective it once called a jaguar out of the water and into a canoe, requiring the hunters to beat it out of
the boat with their paddles.
Mating and birth have been documented in wild jaguars throughout the year (Mondolfi & Hoogesteijn,
1982; Line & Ricciuti, 1985), but at widely separated points in the species range. Other authors
emphasize that reproduction coincides with peaks in prey availability rather than geography (Rabinowitz,
2014). Seymour (1989) cites Rabinowitz’ observations of two cubs in just over half the litters he
documented, followed by singletons at 35%. He saw three cubs 13% of the time. In zoos, litters
occasionally contain four cubs, as well (Association of Zoos and Aquariums, 2013).
The jaguar may utilize a characteristic
Panthera killing technique which is typified by attacking with a
deep bite to the throat that suffocates the prey, but, more often than not, an attack where a bite pierces
the back of the skull at its weakest point is used. This bite frequently crushes the zygomatic arch with
such precision as to place the canines precisely in a 7.6 cm x 7.6 cm (3 in. x 3 in.) area which, at times,
correlates with canine placement into the ear and cranium of its prey. Afterward, the jaguar drags the prey
to a thicket or secluded spot. The digestive tract is usually removed 2–3 m (6.56 ft–9.84 ft)
away. The
ventral surface of the prey (neck, chest, heart, and lungs) is eaten first, followed by the
shoulders
(Schaller & Vasconcelos, 1978).
When jaguars are hunting reptiles, the technique is slightly different. The jaguar pounces on the
alligator or caiman from behind, immediately biting through the neck. This severs the cervical vertebrate
and renders the reptile unable to lash itself into the water. When eating a turtle, the jaguar introduces its
paw into the shell through the opening between the carapace and plastron and scoops out the flesh
without breaking the shell. Porcupines are simply flipped onto their dorsal side, and the exposed flesh is
scooped out with the paw (Mondolfi & Hoogesteijn, 1982).
In all cases, the jaguar attacks from cover, and they usually attack from a blind side with a
characteristic pounce. As an ambush predator, the jaguar has few peers in
the animal kingdom and is
accorded a high degree of respect by not only field researchers, but by indigenous people as well. In
retrospect, this comes as no surprise when considering how the jaguar as a species has effectively
adapted to a variety of ecosystems and has the ability to function as an apex predator in its established
range (Mondolfi & Hoogesteijn, 1982).
Median life expectancy for a zoo jaguar is 17.7 years, meaning that one-half of all cubs born reach
that age. 69% of zoo-born jaguars reach one year of age, but it is presumed that wild jaguars have a
much lower survivorship. After a zoo-born cub reaches the one-year mark, median life expectancy stays
above 90% each year until age 15, and it does not drop down to 69% again until the jaguar is 19 years of
age. On the whole, jaguars live longer in zoos than any other big cat, and the current longevity record in
North America is 26 years, 10 months (Association of Zoos and Aquariums, 2013).
Interaction with humans is the most likely cause of mortality for wild jaguars, followed by young falling
prey to other carnivores (e.g. other jaguars, crocodilians, and large snakes). Accidental death from
injuries sustained during hunting probably also takes a toll (Seymour, 1989). Wild animal longevity is
often assumed to be half that experienced under zoo care, but a field research team in Belize reported
camera-trap photographs made in 2012 of jaguars that were first observed in 2000. In
the original photos,
the animals were mature adults, but twelve years later they still appeared vigorous and healthy (Harmsen
personal communication, 2012). Thus, wild jaguars may enjoy longer lives than previously thought.
The jaguar is the largest cat in the Americas with a record weight of over 158 kg (348 lbs) (Emmons,
1997). The largest jaguars have been found in the Brazilian Pantanal region, where, in one study, the
average weight of males was 100 kg (220 lbs). Head and body length without the tail may be up to 1.85 m
(6 ft), and the tail can measure 75 cm (29.5 in.) long. Height at the shoulder may be up to 75 cm (29.5 in.)
(Nowak & Paradiso, 1983).
The jaguar’s coat color ranges from pale yellow to reddish brown, with a much paler (often white)
underbelly. It has spots on the neck, body, and limbs that form rosettes which contain black markings
within them. On
the head and underparts, the spots are simple black dots. Black jaguars are not
uncommon, and even they possess darker rosette markings that are visible in bright light. Black jaguars
are recognized as a color morph of the same species.