9
Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of
Indigenous Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Marine Hunters of Chukotka
The location of the coastal settlements points to the ancient hunters’ ability to
distribute their hunting pressure on the animal populations evenly (or speaking
scientifically, ecologically correctly), and also to lower the human impact on the
fragile and sensitive natural complexes of the Arctic, primarily its vegetation and
soil cover. In order to reach this goal the marine hunters of Chukotka adhered to
three rules when setting up their permanent settlements.
(1) The settlements were located at conjunctions of various ecosystems where the
biodiversity and natural productivity were always exceptionally high, and to
save the energy spent by hunters to get to the resources. If the productivity of
one type of biological resources decreased, people could put more pressure on
other resources. Thus, during the periods when the sea mammals populations
were low or not available, people would focus more on fishing, bird hunting,
and gathering, including gathering of eggs from bird colonies.
(2) Open water in winter was the essential natural basis for marine hunting culture
in the Bering Strait region. Traditionally the settlements of hunters who
pursued whales and pinniped species (seals and walrus) were always located
near the winter “open” water, by permanent ice cracks, polynyas, and areas
with unstable and mobile ice cover. A thorough knowledge of the characteristic
features of the ice regime allowed indigenous residents of Chukotka to conduct
year-long sea mammal hunting. In winter the widest open water area, called
Sireniki ice hole, near the shore of eastern Chukotka, is the traditional hunting
area for the residents of four aboriginal settlements (Uelkal, Enmelen,
Nunligran, and Sireniki). In the old days there used to be more than thirty large
and small settlements along this portion of the shore. They were spaced out
fairly equally and supplemented by seasonal hunting and fishing camps.
(3) Evenly-spaced small settlements and seasonal hunting camps ensured an equal
distribution of hunting pressure on the population of sea mammals and reduced
the human impact on the surrounding environment. Even in places with rich
natural resources, a single large settlement was avoided in favor of several
well-spaced, independent villages with a small number of residents, usually 40-
60 people, and only rarely more than 100-120. Only three traditional coastal
communities in Chukotka had population of more than 200 people.
Settlements on the capes should be noted separately since they are strategically
important locations for all sea hunters of the Arctic. From the capes the hunters can
see wide expanses of the sea. The whales, walruses, and seals take a path around
10
Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of
Indigenous Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Marine Hunters of Chukotka
the capes during their seasonal migrations. These capes play an important part in
the forming of biodiversity and productivity of the sea and coastal ecosystems.
Asian, American, and Greenlandic Eskimos worship every cape and call them “the
place where everything becomes clear”.
‘Companion’ villages were often created on these capes, one on either side. If
weather and ice conditions were unfavorable for hunting on the one side of the
cape, the hunters would go to the other side. In general the entire eastern Chukotka
Peninsula can be characterized as a giant cape dividing the Pacific and the Arctic
Oceans. The ruins of the dwellings, villages and ritual structures of sea hunters can
usually be clearly seen along the shoreline because of the white “poles” made of
the lower jawbones of bowhead whales dug vertically in the ground. Unfortunately
at present the ruins of these ancient settlements are falling apart under the influence
of natural erosion processes and the tectonic activity of the shoreline, which is
literally slipping into the sea.
The erosion of cultural heritage of the ancient sea hunters is actively hastened by
people as well. The ruins of the settlements and cultural layers that retain many
unique objects of art are being destroyed during the construction of almost every
new settlement. They are robbed by would-be archeologists, trampled on by
poachers, tourists, off-roaders, etc. However, even to this day the Chukotka
Peninsula still remains an enormously productive area for identifying ancient
settlements, ritual constructions and graveyards, many of which have world
significance.
Wildlife and Traditional Use of Resources
Sea mammals
The coastal seas of eastern Chukotka are a great feeding ground for various fish,
birds, and sea mammal species, the latter represented by six species of pinnepeds
(walrus, sea lions, and four seal species) and thirteen cetacean species, including
baleen and toothed whales and dolphins. Seven types of whales are under
international protection: bowhead whales (Greenland and Japanese); other baleen
whales (blue whale, fin- and humpback whale); Californian grey whale, and
narwhal. The Japanese whale, sperm whale, and narwhal live here at the borders of
their natural range, while dolphins, Dall’s porpoise, and the ribbon seal are
endemic species of the North Pacific.