as scapegoats for the plague: they were accused of poisoning the water, and
pogroms were unleashed. Many Jews emigrated to eastern Europe, and Yiddish
is in some respects a form of late mediaeval German.) Labour shortages began to
lead to an improvement in conditions for peasants in the older, western parts of
Germany, as lords attempted to retain increasingly scarce labour. But in the east,
formerly relatively free peasants found their labour being increasingly exploited
and their status subjugated, as lords attempted to extract more from fewer
people. A so-called ‘second serfdom’ began to develop in these areas, later than
the ‘first’ serfdom of the west. Population increase started again in the second
half of the fifteenth century: over Europe as a whole, the population rose to over
60 million. The estimated population of Germany at the beginning of the
sixteenth century is about 16 million. From the mid-fifteenth century, with
increasing pressure on land and resources, there were periodic peasants’ revolts,
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