189
Gropper (Würth) (1998; 2009), Robertson
(2004), Stoltz (2009) and Wellendorf (2014).
My approach, however, goes beyond these
questions. I examine the place of
Rómverja
saga in the cultural transfer of knowledge and
learning, as well as the saga’s place in the
civilizing process of Europeanisation of
Scandinavia.
Latin or Ancient Roman culture had flowed
into Scandinavia via waves of texts from the
South. Literary contacts between continental
Europe and Scandinavia started as early as the
Christianisation of the North. Powerful
currents of Latin learning and continental
European culture were felt in Iceland from that
period
onward.
The
North
underwent
Christianisation, the first profound colonial
civilizing process, in the 11
th
and 12
th
centuries. The region opened up to Latin
culture, and later to the courtly culture and the
primary intellectual stream of the Middle Ages
in Europe –
translatio studii et imperii, the
cross-cultural exchange of knowledge – the
transfer of written knowledge through
translation – between the societies in Europe.
Rómverja
saga
is
an
interesting
manifestation
of
the
above-mentioned
Europeanisation of the mediaeval North
through the instrument of translation. By
focusing on this ‘displaced’ text, an Old Norse-
Icelandic translation/compilation of several
Latin / Ancient Roman texts, I intend to
highlight cultural connections between the two
apparently unrelated times, namely Antiquity
and the Middle Ages, and places, specifically
between the Roman Empire and the Viking-
Age and mediaeval Scandinavian kingdoms
and the Icelandic Commonwealth. My PhD
thesis aims to describe how certain Latin
manuscripts that contained ancient Roman
texts were imported from continental Europe
and the British Isles to Scandinavia and Iceland
to certain monasteries and cathedral schools.
There, they ended up in the hands of monks
who not only used them to teach Latin and
possibly history, but
also translated Latin texts
into the vernacular. A further consequence of
the importation of manuscripts is the influence
the process yielded on the production of texts
in situ, the education of the country’s
intellectual elites and social change
sensu
largo.
I primarily focus on the main intellectual
stream of the Middle Ages in Europe –
translatio studii, cultural transfer or cross-
cultural exchange of knowledge and learning
between societies in Europe. I also examine the
‘cultural imperialism’ that helped the Catholic
Church and the continental monarchies gain
influence over Northern Europe. By these
cultural means, they were inducing those
within their sphere of influence to imitate the
forms and values of the dominant culture.
I reflect on the mediaeval Icelanders' pursuit
of knowledge about the South and Greco-
Roman Antiquity as a deliberate activity
undertaken at all levels: beginning with the
import of manuscripts, translation practices,
intertextual relations, cultural transfer, and
ending with changes in social cognition and
mentality.
Preceded by an introduction and followed
by a conclusion, my dissertation is divided into
five parts. The first part establishes the
methodical and theoretical background of my
approach to the Icelandic sagas and ancient
Roman literature. The second part concerns the
background of cultural transfer: people, places,
trails,
institutions, structures, and manuscripts.
The third part is a textual analysis of
Rómverja
saga addressing the question of what became
of the ancient Roman text that would
eventually be translated by a mediaeval
Icelander. The fourth part examines the
intertextual relations surrounding
Rómverja
saga and addresses how the saga became
intertwined
with
vernacular
Icelandic
literature. In
the fifth part, I focus
on the strata
of the social cognition as resembled by the
language of the texts, looking for traces of
Latin-Old Norse interfaces, points where these
two conceptual worlds meet and interact.
Throughout my discussion I refer to a
number of theoretical perspectives employed
in fields such as linguistics, literary studies,
and history. My inspiration for this work is
Stephen Greenblatt’s cultural poetics theory.
The research undertaken in this study is also
based upon methodological principles set out
by postcolonial theory, intertextuality theory,
approaches
to
cognitive
linguistics
as
190
established by George Lakoff, and approaches
to cognitive poetics by Peter Stockwell. These
theories enable me to examine
Rómverja saga
from many different angles. The resulting
portrait is that of a complex phenomenon
featuring material, textual, intertextual, and
socio-cultural dimensions.
In the second part of my study I seek answers
for a basic question: how did the classics
(Lucanus and Sallustius in the case of
Rómverja
saga) reach Iceland from continental Europe?
What was their route of transmission? I take a
close look at the social institutions and structures
of Scandinavia that produced a vital environment
for literary activity (literary milieus, patronage,
and monasticism), at the migratory networks of
people travelling between Scandinavia and the
continent
(scholars,
students,
pilgrims,
missionaries, or travellers) and at the lineages
of transmission. I ask, what enabled this case
of transcultural translation? What were the
channels of transmission that reinforced this
flow of ideas? For example, manuscripts may
have been transmitted along the same route
scholars, students, pilgrims, missionaries and
travellers followed, such people
bringing
manuscripts, books and other material sources
of knowledge home with them.
Digging into the textual strata of this case of
cultural transfer, I open up an intertextual
perspective. I ask, what happened to this
cultural product that travelled through time and
space to emerge and become enshrined in new
contexts and configurations? What are the
differences between the original text and the
target text? How did the translator re-read the
text? The translator, confronted with the texts
of foreign linguistic, sociohistorical, cultural
and literary origins, as ancient Rome must
have been to a mediaeval Icelander, had to
decode the text and
translate it not only from a
foreign language into his or her own but also
from a foreign cultural context into his or her
own. Differences and tension within the text
indicate the presence of conflicting discourses.
This is particularly valid not only within the
interfaces of cultures and languages that occur
in the translated text but especially in the case
of a text that was created as a compilation of
texts, texts that had originated in different
ideological contexts. How did the compiler of
Rómverja saga resolve the contradiction
between the republican Sallustius, whose
works have radical ideological implication and
share a tragic pattern of fictionalisation and the
monarchist Lucanus, whose writings have
conservative ideological implications and share
an epic pattern of fictionalisation? In this part of
my dissertation, I explore omissions, additions,
and other modifications that indicate shifts in
ideology, from anti-royalist to monarchist, and
changes in fictionalisation patterns.
With the flow of Latin learning to Iceland,
the Old Norse-Icelandic conceptual world did
not remain intact. The classics imported from
the South and the Latin language had an
important influence on the mediaeval Northern
World.
Through
translation,
mediaeval
Icelanders incorporated European culture into
their own, which made them not only familiar
with continental European culture but also
enabled them to identify with the region.
Therefore, in the following part of my
dissertation, I also seek to answer the
following questions: to what extent was Old
Norse-Icelandic language and literature, in the
sense of semantics/meaning, influenced by
Latin language and literature? Changes in
mentality came hand-in-hand with language
change. But what exactly was the influence of
classical ideas on Old Norse-Icelandic
thought? Might these ideas have been to a
certain degree integrated into the mentality of
mediaeval Icelanders? Or at least the mentality
of certain groups inside mediaeval Icelandic
society? In my dissertation, I explore these
questions while looking for evidence of the
transfer of social norms in the form of
cognitive metaphors from continental Europe
as it appears in the Sagas of Antiquity
(
Antikensagas) and the vernacular sagas.
The research in this part of my dissertation
focuses on social cognition in the context of
Latin and Old Norse-Icelandic literature and
language, their interfaces, the cross-cultural
adaptation of cognitive structures (a process
wherein a bit of cultural information is brought
into a society), its existing schemata, existing
meaning structures, and how it may be
subsequently accommodated and assimilated
into the social structure, causing changes in
mentality and worldview.