185
that, by critically combining Old Norse
literature and Viking Age archaeology, it is not
only possible to identify material examples of
magic staffs in the archaeological record, but
one can also unravel the intricate symbolic
meanings of these remarkable objects.
Chapter 1 (
Introduction) introduces the
readers to the broad history of magic staffs and
discusses their different examples and
applications
in
a
wide
spatiotemporal
perspective, from prehistory to the Middle
Ages. It is argued that staffs made of wood,
iron, and other materials are some of the oldest
ritual paraphernalia in human history, and were
used for a plethora of purposes by ritual
specialists and religious leaders in various
cultural milieus throughout the ages. In some
societies – such as among the Ancient Greeks
and Romans – staffs were also regarded as very
powerful and important attributes of gods and
supernatural
beings
(de
Waele
1927).
Following an overview of the different
meanings and applications of staffs in times
predating the Middle Ages, focus shifts to
exploring their role among Viking Age
Scandinavians. The use of staffs is discussed in
the context of
seiðr magic and several famous
accounts of this practice are brought to the
reader’s attention (e.g.
Eiríks saga rauða,
Laxdœla saga, Ynglinga saga). Over the last
two centuries,
seiðr has been debated by
numerous scholars, including philologists,
historians of religion, and archaeologists.
Although this monograph does not seek to
explore the complete history of
seiðr research
and its various nuances, the major cornerstones
and seminal contributions
to this field of study
are critically discussed (Strömbäck 1935;
Ohlmarks 1939; Price 2002; Solli 2002; Heide
2006; Tolley 2009). In the author’s opinion, in
order to better understand the various
intricacies of
seiðr (including its human and
supernatural practitioners and their ritual
paraphernalia),
one
must
take
into
consideration not only the textual sources that
describe it, but also a wide range of
archaeological finds dating from the Viking
Age. In doing so, however, it is important to
acknowledge the fact that any attempt to
entangle texts and archaeology presents a
number of problems; this endeavor cannot be
undertaken uncritically. In order to clarify
these methodological dilemmas, the final
sections of
Chapter 1 discuss how and under
what circumstances texts and archaeology can
be used to effectively illuminate each other.
Chapter 2 (
The Archaeology of Viking Age
Ritual Specialists) provides an overview of the
history of archaeological research on magic
and its practitioners in the Viking Age.
Particular attention is devoted to the seminal
study of Neil Price, entitled
The Viking Way:
Religion and War in Late Iron Age
Scandinavia, and to a range of more recent
work that seeks to expand and/or revise his
arguments. Since the publication of Price’s
monograph, a number of archaeologists have
devoted their attention to the material
dimension of magic in the Viking Age. This
increased interest in pre-Christian religions
and expressions of past beliefs in the
archaeological record has resulted in new
discoveries and the reinterpretation of a
number of older finds. These include specialist
analyses of the contents of the famous Fyrkat
4 grave (believed to belong to
a female magic-
worker), and reevaluations of several opulent
Norwegian graves from Gausel, Hopperstad,
Oseberg, and Trå, some of which contained
ambiguous iron rods that could have been used
as magic staffs (Holck 2006; Kaland 2006;