Alexander, Richard D., John L. Hoogland, Richard D. Howard, Katharine M. Noonan, and Paul W. Sherman. 1979. "Sexual Dimorphisms and Breeding Systems in Pinnipeds, Ungulates, Primates, and Humans." Pp. 402-435 in Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior: An Anthropological Perspective, edited by Napoleon A. Chagnon and William Irons. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press.
Betzig, Laura. 1986. Despotism and Differential Reproduction: A Darwinian View of History. New York: Aldine.
Blumberg, Rae. 1978. Stratification: Socioeconomic and Sexual Inequality. Dubuque, Iowa: WM. C. Brown.
Chafetz, Janet Saltzman. 1984. Sex and Advantage. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld.
Childe, V. Gordon. 1936. Man Makes Himself. London, England: Watts.
Daly, Martin and Margo Wilson. 1983. Sex, Evolution, & Behavior. (2nd edition.) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Diamond, Jared. 1998. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York: Norton.
Divale, William. 2000. Pre-Coded Variables for the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample, Volume I and II. Jamaica, NY: York College, CUNY. [Distributed by World Cultures.]
Fried, Morton. 1967. The Evolution of Political Society. New York: Random House.
Gray, J. Patrick. 1998. Ethnographic Atlas Codebook. World Cultures 10(1):86-136. [Distributed by World Cultures.]
Goldschmidt, Walter. 1959. Man's Way: A preface to the Understanding of Human Society. New York: Holt.
Holmberg, Allan. 1950. Nomads of the Long Bow: The Siriono of Eastern Bolivia. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
Kanazawa, Satoshi and Mary C. Still. 1999. "Why Monogamy?" Social Forces 78:25-50.
Kanazawa, Satoshi. 2001. "Science vs. History: A Reply to MacDonald." Social Forces 80:349-352.
Kanazawa, Satoshi. 2001. "A Bit of Logic Goes a Long Way: A Reply to Sanderson." Social Forces 80:337-341.
Lenski, Gerhard. 1970. Human Societies: A Macrolevel Introduction to Sociology. (1st edition.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lenski, Gerhard. [1966] 1984. Power and Privilege. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
Lopreato, Joseph and Timothy Crippen. 1999. Crisis in Sociology: The Need for Darwin. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
MacDonald, Kevin. 2001. "Theoretical Pluralism and a Historical Complexity: A Comment on Kanazawa and Still." Social Forces 80:343-347.
Morgan, Lewis Henry. 1877. Ancient Society. New York: Holt.
Murdock, George P. 1967. Ethnographic Atlas. Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh University Press.
Murdock, George P. and Caterina Provost. 1971. "Cultural Complexity." Ethnology 12:379-392.
Murdock, George P. and Douglas R. White. 1969. "Standard Cross-Cultural Sample." Ethnology 8:329-369.
Nolan, Patrick and Gerhard Lenski. 1999. Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology. (8th edition.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
Sanderson, Stephen K. 2001. "Explaining Monogamy and Polygyny in Human Societies: Comment on Kanazawa and Still." Social Forces 80:329-335.
Service, Elman. 1962. Primitive Social Organization. New York: Random House.
Service, Elman. 1975. Origins of the State and Civilization. 1975. New York: Norton.
van den Berghe, Pierre L. 1974. "Bringing Beasts Back In." American Sociological Review 39:777-788.
Table 2.1: World Region by Type of Society
-
|
A
|
C
|
E
|
I
|
N
|
S
|
Total
|
N
|
HG
|
4.0
|
0.0
|
3.4
|
13.2
|
66.7
|
12.6
|
100.0
|
174
|
SH
|
7.4
|
2.5
|
3.7
|
46.3
|
14.2
|
25.9
|
100.0
|
162
|
AH
|
73.8
|
9.1
|
7.6
|
6.5
|
1.1
|
1.9
|
100.0
|
263
|
AG
|
3.7
|
44.4
|
38.5
|
8.1
|
4.4
|
0.7
|
100.0
|
135
|
FI
|
11.7
|
0.0
|
8.3
|
23.3
|
45.0
|
11.7
|
100.0
|
60
|
HE
|
15.6
|
63.6
|
19.5
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
1.3
|
100.0
|
77
|
Total
|
27.2
|
15.7
|
11.9
|
16.1
|
20.1
|
9.0
|
100.0
|
|
N
|
237
|
137
|
104
|
140
|
175
|
78
|
|
871
|
Note: Type of Society: see Appendix. World Region is EA V91$: A = Africa (exclusive of Madagascar and the Sahara), C = Circum-Mediterranean (North Africa, Turkey, Caucasus, Semitic Near East), E = East Eurasia (including Madagascar and islands in Indian Ocean), I = Insular Pacific (including Australia, Indonesia, Formosa, Philippines), N = North America (indigenous societies to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec), S = South America (including Antilles, Yucatan, Central America)
Table 2.2: Principal Subsistence Activity by Type of Society
-
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
Total
|
N
|
HG
|
56.9
|
5.7
|
23.0
|
0.0
|
2.3
|
0.6
|
10.9
|
0.6
|
100.0
|
174
|
SH
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
81.5
|
18.5
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
162
|
AH
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
69.6
|
30.4
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
263
|
AG
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
11.9
|
88.1
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
135
|
FI
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
60
|
HE
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
100
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
77
|
Total
|
11.4
|
8.0
|
4.6
|
8.8
|
38.5
|
26.4
|
2.2
|
0.1
|
100.0
|
|
N
|
99
|
70
|
40
|
77
|
335
|
230
|
19
|
1
|
|
871
|
Note: Type of Society: see Appendix. Dominant Subsistence is EA V42, Activity that contributes most to subsistence: 1 = Gathering, 2 = Fishing, 3 = Hunting, 4 = Pastoralism, 5 = Casual agriculture, 6 = Extensive agriculture, 7 = Intensive agriculture, 8 = Two or more sources equally, 9 = Agriculture, type unknown.
Table 3.1: Population Density by Type of Society
-
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
Total
|
N
|
HG
|
77.8
|
11.1
|
7.4
|
3.7
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
27
|
SH
|
25.7
|
14.3
|
22.9
|
28.6
|
8.6
|
100.0
|
35
|
AH
|
2.5
|
10.0
|
30.0
|
27.5
|
30.0
|
100.0
|
40
|
AG
|
0.0
|
6.5
|
6.5
|
25.8
|
61.3
|
100.0
|
31
|
FI
|
36.4
|
9.1
|
18.2
|
18.2
|
18.2
|
100.0
|
11
|
HE
|
37.5
|
43.7
|
6.2
|
12.5
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
16
|
Total
|
25.6
|
13.8
|
16.9
|
21.3
|
22.5
|
100.0
|
|
N
|
41
|
22
|
27
|
34
|
36
|
|
160
|
NOTE: Chi-square 109.0, 20 df, p<.000; more than 20% of fitted cells are sparse (n<5) so significance level is suspect. Type of Society: see Appendix. Population Density is SS V156 (per square mile): 1 = <1 person, 2 = 1-5 persons, 3 = 5.1-25 persons, 4 = 26-100 persons, 5 = >100 persons.
Table 3.2: Class Stratification (0 = ABSENT, 1 = PRESENT) by Type of Society
-
|
0
|
1
|
Total
|
N
|
HG
|
78.2
|
21.8
|
100.0
|
165
|
SH
|
58.2
|
41.8
|
100.0
|
158
|
AH
|
37.7
|
62.3
|
100.0
|
236
|
AG
|
14.3
|
85.7
|
100.0
|
126
|
FI
|
48.1
|
51.9
|
100.0
|
54
|
HE
|
21.0
|
79.0
|
100.0
|
62
|
Total
|
45.8
|
54.2
|
100.0
|
|
N
|
367
|
434
|
|
801
|
NOTE: Chi-square 151.7, 5 df, p<.000. Type of Society: see Appendix. Class Stratification recoded from EA V66 as 0 if V66 is 1 = Absence of class stratification among freemen, 1 if V66 is 2 = Wealth distinctions, 3 = Elite based on control of land or other resources, 4 = Dual (hereditary aristocracy), or 5 = Complex (social classes).
Table 3.3: Jurisdictional Hierarchy Beyond Local Community by Type of Society (Number of Levels)
-
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
Total
|
N
|
HG
|
88.0
|
12.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
167
|
SH
|
62.3
|
26.5
|
10.5
|
0.6
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
162
|
AH
|
24.6
|
38.5
|
26.2
|
10.0
|
0.8
|
100.0
|
260
|
AG
|
12.8
|
18.4
|
18.4
|
31.2
|
19.2
|
100.0
|
125
|
FI
|
67.9
|
28.6
|
3.6
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
56
|
HE
|
10.1
|
42.0
|
30.4
|
17.4
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
69
|
Total
|
44.5
|
27.5
|
15.6
|
9.3
|
3.1
|
100.0
|
|
N
|
373
|
231
|
131
|
78
|
26
|
|
839
|
NOTE: Chi-square 483.8, 20 df, p<.000. Type of Society: see Appendix. Jurisdictional Hierarchy Beyond Local Community is EA V33: 1 = No political authority beyond local community, 2 = One level (petty chiefdom), 3 = Two levels (larger chiefdom), 4 = Three levels (state), 5 = Four levels (large state)
Table 3.4: Technological Specialization by Type of Society
-
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
Total
|
N
|
HG
|
55.6
|
18.5
|
22.2
|
3.7
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
27
|
SH
|
20.0
|
25.7
|
31.4
|
20.0
|
2.9
|
100.0
|
35
|
AH
|
2.5
|
0.0
|
7.5
|
70.0
|
20.0
|
100.0
|
40
|
AG
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
6.5
|
16.1
|
77.4
|
100.0
|
31
|
FI
|
45.5
|
18.2
|
18.2
|
18.2
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
11
|
HE
|
18.8
|
6.2
|
12.5
|
62.5
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
16
|
Total
|
19.4
|
10.6
|
16.3
|
33.1
|
20.6
|
100.0
|
|
N
|
31
|
17
|
26
|
53
|
33
|
|
160
|
NOTE: Chi-square 158.8, 20 df, p<.000; more than 20% of fitted cells are sparse (n<5) so significance level is suspect. Type of Society: see Appendix. Technological Specialization is SS V153: 1 = None, 2 = Pottery only, 3 = Loom weaving only, 4 = Metalwork only, 5 = Smiths, weavers, potters.
Table 3.5: OLS Regressions of Jurisdictional Hierarchy Beyond Local Community and Technological Specialization on Type of Society
-
|
Jurisdictional Hierarchy Beyond Local Community
|
Technological Specialization
|
Independent
Variable
|
b
|
t = b/se
|
p>|t|
|
b
|
t = b/se
|
p>|t|
|
Constant
|
1.120
|
16.732
|
.000
|
1.741
|
9.725
|
.000
|
HG (ref.)
|
--
|
--
|
--
|
--
|
--
|
--
|
SH
|
0.374
|
3.922
|
.000
|
.859
|
3.607
|
.000
|
AH
|
1.119
|
13.044
|
.000
|
2.309
|
9.968
|
.000
|
AG
|
2.136
|
20.885
|
.000
|
2.969
|
12.126
|
.000
|
FI
|
0.237
|
1.777
|
.076
|
.350
|
1.053
|
.294
|
HE
|
1.431
|
11.562
|
.000
|
1.447
|
4.930
|
.000
|
R2
|
.407
|
|
|
.578
|
|
|
Adj. R2
|
.403
|
|
|
.565
|
|
|
N
|
839
|
|
|
160
|
|
|
NOTE: Type of Society indicators: see Appendix. Jurisdictional Hierarchy Beyond Local Community: see Table 3.3. Technological Specialization: see Table 3.4.
Table 4.1: Inheritance of Office of Local Headman (0 = ABSENT, 1 = PRESENT) by Type of Society
-
|
0
|
1
|
Total
|
N
|
HG
|
47.4
|
52.6
|
100.0
|
133
|
SH
|
47.0
|
53.0
|
100.0
|
132
|
AH
|
34.4
|
65.6
|
100.0
|
218
|
AG
|
70.4
|
29.6
|
100.0
|
98
|
FI
|
44.2
|
55.8
|
100.0
|
43
|
HE
|
38.3
|
61.7
|
100.0
|
47
|
Total
|
45.6
|
54.4
|
100.0
|
|
N
|
306
|
365
|
|
671
|
NOTE: Chi-square 36.6, 5 df, p<.000. Type of Society: see Appendix. Inheritance of Office of Local Headman calculated from EA V72 as 1 if V72 is 1 = Patrilineal heir or 2 = Matrilineal heir, and 0 otherwise.
Table 4.2: Inheritance of Real Property (Land) (0 = ABSENT, 1 = PRESENT) by Type of Society
-
|
0
|
1
|
Total
|
N
|
HG
|
83.2
|
16.8
|
100.0
|
101
|
SH
|
21.8
|
78.2
|
100.0
|
87
|
AH
|
6.9
|
93.1
|
100.0
|
218
|
AG
|
2.7
|
97.3
|
100.0
|
110
|
FI
|
51.4
|
48.6
|
100.0
|
35
|
HE
|
31.4
|
68.6
|
100.0
|
51
|
Total
|
25.7
|
74.3
|
100.0
|
|
N
|
155
|
447
|
|
602
|
NOTE: Chi-square 258.9, 5 df, p<.000. Type of Society: see Appendix. Inheritance of Real Property is coded from EA V74 as 0 if V74 = 1, Absence of individual property rights or rules, and 1 otherwise.
Table 4.3: Composite Social Stratification Scale by Type of Society
-
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
Total
|
N
|
HG
|
92.6
|
7.4
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
27
|
SH
|
42.9
|
37.1
|
14.3
|
5.7
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
35
|
AH
|
10.0
|
32.5
|
20.0
|
20.0
|
17.5
|
100.0
|
40
|
AG
|
3.2
|
19.4
|
3.2
|
6.5
|
67.7
|
100.0
|
31
|
FI
|
18.2
|
45.5
|
9.1
|
27.3
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
11
|
HE
|
18.8
|
50.0
|
0.0
|
25.0
|
6.2
|
100.0
|
16
|
Total
|
31.3
|
29.4
|
9.4
|
11.9
|
18.1
|
100.0
|
|
N
|
50
|
47
|
15
|
19
|
29
|
|
160
|
NOTE: Chi-square 138.0, 20 df, p<.000; more than 20% of fitted cells are sparse (n<5) so significance level is suspect. Type of Society: see Appendix. Social Stratification Scale is SS V158: 1 = Egalitarian, 2 = Hereditary slavery, 3 = 2 social classes, no castes/slavery, 4 = 2 social classes, castes/slavery, 5 = 3 social classes or castes, with or without slavery.
Table 4.4: Slavery (0 = ABSENT, 1 = PRESENT) by Type of Society
-
|
0
|
1
|
Total
|
N
|
HG
|
88.4
|
11.6
|
100.0
|
164
|
SH
|
80.7
|
19.3
|
100.0
|
150
|
AH
|
15.9
|
84.1
|
100.0
|
239
|
AG
|
56.3
|
43.7
|
100.0
|
119
|
FI
|
49.1
|
50.9
|
100.0
|
57
|
HE
|
18.3
|
81.7
|
100.0
|
60
|
Total
|
52.0
|
48.0
|
100.0
|
|
N
|
410
|
379
|
|
789
|
NOTE: Chi-square 289.6, 5 df, p<.000. Type of Society: see Appendix. Slavery is calculated from EA V70 as 0 if V70 is 1 = Absence or near absence (of slavery), and 1 otherwise.
Table 4.5: Despotism (0 = ABSENT, 1 = PRESENT) by Type of Society
-
|
0
|
1
|
Total
|
N
|
HG
|
100.0
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
21
|
SH
|
88.9
|
11.1
|
100.0
|
18
|
AH
|
35.7
|
64.3
|
100.0
|
14
|
AG
|
86.7
|
13.3
|
100.0
|
15
|
FI
|
88.9
|
11.1
|
100.0
|
9
|
HE
|
100.0
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
6
|
Total
|
83.1
|
16.9
|
100.0
|
|
N
|
69
|
14
|
|
83
|
NOTE: Chi-square 28.7, 5 df, p<.000; more than 20% of fitted cells are sparse (n<5) so significance level is suspect. Type of Society: see Appendix. Despotism is SS V1134 contributed by Betzig (1986, 1988): 0 = Despotism absent (recoded from 1), 1 = Despotism present (recoded from 2). See the SS codebook and Betzig (1986, 1988) for detailed discussion.
Table 5.1: Games of Strategy (0 = ABSENT; 1 = PRESENT) by Type of Society
-
|
0
|
1
|
Total
|
N
|
HG
|
100.0
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
131
|
SH
|
89.6
|
10.4
|
100.0
|
67
|
AH
|
40.9
|
59.1
|
100.0
|
66
|
AG
|
43.2
|
56.8
|
100.0
|
44
|
FI
|
97.1
|
2.9
|
100.0
|
34
|
HE
|
46.2
|
53.8
|
100.0
|
13
|
Total
|
77.7
|
22.3
|
100.0
|
|
N
|
276
|
79
|
|
355
|
NOTE: Chi-square 139.9, 5 df, p<.000. Type of Society: see Appendix. Presence of games of strategy calculated from EA V35 as missing if V35 is 0, 1 if V35 is 4 = Strategy only, 6 = Skill and strategy, 7 = Chance and strategy, or 8 = All [type of games], and 0 otherwise.
Figure 5.1: Importance of Self-Reliance in Socialization by Type of Society (Means and Standard Errors). NOTE: R2 of regression of Importance of Self-Reliance on Type of Society indicators (with HG omitted) is .153 with N=139. Type of Society: see Appendix. Importance of Self-Reliance is calculated as the average of SS V306 to V309, Inculcation of Self-Reliance in Early Boy, Early Girl, Late Boy, and Late Girl, respectively. Each variable is coded on a scale from 0 = No inculcation or opposite trait to 9 = Strong inculcation.
Figure 5.2: Importance of Obedience in Socialization by Type of Society (Means and Standard Errors). NOTE: R2 of regression of Importance of Obedience on Type of Society indicators (with HG omitted) is .129 with N=140. Type of Society: see Appendix. Importance of Obedience is calculated as the average of SS V322 to V325, Inculcation of Obedience in Early Boy, Early Girl, Late Boy, and Late Girl, respectively. Each variable is coded on a scale from 0 = No inculcation or opposite trait to 9 = Strong inculcation.
Table 6.1: Polygyny (0 = ABSENT, 1 = PRESENT) by Type of Society
-
|
0
|
1
|
Total
|
N
|
HG
|
10.5
|
89.5
|
100.0
|
172
|
SH
|
24.8
|
75.2
|
100.0
|
157
|
AH
|
6.5
|
93.5
|
100.0
|
261
|
AG
|
41.5
|
58.5
|
100.0
|
135
|
FI
|
12.1
|
87.9
|
100.0
|
58
|
HE
|
21.6
|
78.4
|
100.0
|
74
|
Total
|
17.9
|
82.1
|
100.0
|
|
N
|
153
|
704
|
|
857
|
NOTE: Chi-square 87.9, 5 df, p<.000. Polygyny is calculated from EA V9 Marital Composition: Monogamy and Polygamy as 0 (ABSENT) if V9 is 1 = Independent nuclear, monogamous or 7 = Independent polyandrous families (n=4), and 1 (PRESENT) otherwise.
Table 6.2: Maximum Harem Size by Type of Society
-
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
Total
|
N
|
HG
|
52.4
|
38.1
|
4.8
|
4.8
|
100.0
|
21
|
SH
|
44.4
|
38.9
|
16.7
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
18
|
AH
|
9.1
|
18.2
|
27.3
|
45.5
|
100.0
|
11
|
AG
|
61.5
|
15.4
|
15.4
|
7.7
|
100.0
|
13
|
FI
|
44.4
|
33.3
|
11.1
|
11.1
|
100.0
|
9
|
HE
|
60.0
|
20.0
|
20.0
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
5
|
Total
|
45.5
|
29.9
|
14.3
|
10.4
|
100.0
|
|
N
|
35
|
23
|
11
|
8
|
|
77
|
NOTE: Chi-square 26.0, 15 df, p =.038; more than 20% of fitted cells are sparse (n<5) so significance level is suspect. Type of Society: see Appendix. Maximum Harem Size is SS V1133 contributed by Betzig (1986, 1988) and defined as "Simultaneous conjugal relations with concubines and wives which the individual at the head of the social hierarchy (or, where there is no hierarchy, the most polygynous man), enjoys". Codes are 1 = 3 conjugal relationships or less, 2 = 4-10 conjugal relationships, 3 = 11-100 conjugal relationships, 4 = More than 100 conjugal relationships.
Table 7.1: Evolutionary Patterns in Dimensions of Social Inequality
-
Dimension of Inequality
|
Table or Figure
|
Evolutionary Pattern
|
Remarks
|
Measures of Social Complexity
|
Population density
|
T3.1
|
Monotonic
|
|
Class stratification
|
T3.2
|
Monotonic
|
|
Hierarchy (# levels)
|
T3.3, T3.5
|
Monotonic
|
|
Specialization scale
|
T3.4, T3.5
|
Monotonic
|
|
Measures of Social Rigidity, Inequality, and Freedom
|
Inheritance of headman office
|
T4.1
|
AG Reversal
|
|
Inheritance of real property
|
T4.2
|
Monotonic
|
|
Stratification scale
|
T4.3
|
Monotonic
|
|
Slavery present
|
T4.4
|
AG Reversal
|
|
Despotism present
|
T4.5
|
AG Reversal
|
|
Ideological Aspects of Inequality
|
Games of strategy
|
T5.1
|
AG Reversal
|
Probably n.s.
|
Emphasis on self-reliance
|
F5.1
|
Monotonic
|
|
Emphasis on obedience
|
F5.2
|
Monotonic
|
|
Sexual and Reproductive Inequality
|
Polygyny allowed
|
T6.1
|
AG Reversal
|
|
Maximum harem size
|
T6.2
|
AG Reversal
|
|
NOTE: The monotonic pattern is one in which HGAG.
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