The code of hammurabi

Exodus, Chapters 20-23
Exodus 20

[1] And God spoke all these words, saying,

[2] "I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage.

[3] "You shall have no other gods before me.

[4] "You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth;

[5] you shall not bow down to them or serve them; for I the LORD your God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children to the third and the fourth generation of those who hate me,

[6] but showing steadfast love to thousands of those who love me and keep my commandments.

[7] "You shall not take the name of the LORD your God in vain; for the LORD will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain.

[8] "Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy.

[9] Six days you shall labor, and do all your work;

[10] but the seventh day is a sabbath to the LORD your God; in it you shall not do any work, you, or your son, or your daughter, your manservant, or your maidservant, or your cattle, or the sojourner who is within your gates;

[11] for in six days the LORD made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested the seventh day; therefore the LORD blessed the sabbath day and hallowed it.

[12] "Honor your father and your mother, that your days may be long in the land which the LORD your God gives you.

[13] "You shall not kill.

[14] "You shall not commit adultery.

[15] "You shall not steal.

[16] "You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.

[17] "You shall not covet your neighbor's house; you shall not covet your neighbor's wife, or his manservant, or his maidservant, or his ox, or his ass, or anything that is your neighbor's."

[18] Now when all the people perceived the thunderings and the lightnings and the sound of the trumpet and the mountain smoking, the people were afraid and trembled; and they stood afar off,

[19] and said to Moses, "You speak to us, and we will hear; but let not God speak to us, lest we die."

[20] And Moses said to the people, "Do not fear; for God has come to prove you, and that the fear of him may be before your eyes, that you may not sin."

[21] And the people stood afar off, while Moses drew near to the thick darkness where God was.

[22] And the LORD said to Moses, "Thus you shall say to the people of Israel: `You have seen for yourselves that I have talked with you from heaven.

[23] You shall not make gods of silver to be with me, nor shall you make for yourselves gods of gold.

[24] An altar of earth you shall make for me and sacrifice on it your burnt offerings and your peace offerings, your sheep and your oxen; in every place where I cause my name to be remembered I will come to you and bless you.

[25] And if you make me an altar of stone, you shall not build it of hewn stones; for if you wield your tool upon it you profane it.

[26] And you shall not go up by steps to my altar, that your nakedness be not exposed on it.'
Exodus 21

[1] "Now these are the ordinances which you shall set before them.

[2] When you buy a Hebrew slave, he shall serve six years, and in the seventh he shall go out free, for nothing.

[3] If he comes in single, he shall go out single; if he comes in married, then his wife shall go out with him.

[4] If his master gives him a wife and she bears him sons or daughters, the wife and her children shall be her master's and he shall go out alone.

[5] But if the slave plainly says, `I love my master, my wife, and my children; I will not go out free,'

[6] then his master shall bring him to God, and he shall bring him to the door or the doorpost; and his master shall bore his ear through with an awl; and he shall serve him for life.

[7] "When a man sells his daughter as a slave, she shall not go out as the male slaves do.

[8] If she does not please her master, who has designated her for himself, then he shall let her be redeemed; he shall have no right to sell her to a foreign people, since he has dealt faithlessly with her.

[9] If he designates her for his son, he shall deal with her as with a daughter.

[10] If he takes another wife to himself, he shall not diminish her food, her clothing, or her marital rights.

[11] And if he does not do these three things for her, she shall go out for nothing, without payment of money.

[12] "Whoever strikes a man so that he dies shall be put to death.

[13] But if he did not lie in wait for him, but God let him fall into his hand, then I will appoint for you a place to which he may flee.

[14] But if a man willfully attacks another to kill him treacherously, you shall take him from my altar, that he may die.

[15] "Whoever strikes his father or his mother shall be put to death.

[16] "Whoever steals a man, whether he sells him or is found in possession of him, shall be put to death.

[17] "Whoever curses his father or his mother shall be put to death.

[18] "When men quarrel and one strikes the other with a stone or with his fist and the man does not die but keeps his bed,

[19] then if the man rises again and walks abroad with his staff, he that struck him shall be clear; only he shall pay for the loss of his time, and shall have him thoroughly healed.

[20] "When a man strikes his slave, male or female, with a rod and the slave dies under his hand, he shall be punished.

[21] But if the slave survives a day or two, he is not to be punished; for the slave is his money.

[22] "When men strive together, and hurt a woman with child, so that there is a miscarriage, and yet no harm follows, the one who hurt her shall be fined, according as the woman's husband shall lay upon him; and he shall pay as the judges determine.

[23] If any harm follows, then you shall give life for life,

[24] eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot,

[25] burn for burn, wound for wound, stripe for stripe.

[26] "When a man strikes the eye of his slave, male or female, and destroys it, he shall let the slave go free for the eye's sake.

[27] If he knocks out the tooth of his slave, male or female, he shall let the slave go free for the tooth's sake.

[28] "When an ox gores a man or a woman to death, the ox shall be stoned, and its flesh shall not be eaten; but the owner of the ox shall be clear.

[29] But if the ox has been accustomed to gore in the past, and its owner has been warned but has not kept it in, and it kills a man or a woman, the ox shall be stoned, and its owner also shall be put to death.

[30] If a ransom is laid on him, then he shall give for the redemption of his life whatever is laid upon him.

[31] If it gores a man's son or daughter, he shall be dealt with according to this same rule.

[32] If the ox gores a slave, male or female, the owner shall give to their master thirty shekels of silver, and the ox shall be stoned.

[33] "When a man leaves a pit open, or when a man digs a pit and does not cover it, and an ox or an ass falls into it,

[34] the owner of the pit shall make it good; he shall give money to its owner, and the dead beast shall be his.

[35] "When one man's ox hurts another's, so that it dies, then they shall sell the live ox and divide the price of it; and the dead beast also they shall divide.

[36] Or if it is known that the ox has been accustomed to gore in the past, and its owner has not kept it in, he shall pay ox for ox, and the dead beast shall be his.
Exodus 22

[1] "If a man steals an ox or a sheep, and kills it or sells it, he shall pay five oxen for an ox, and four sheep for a sheep. He shall make restitution; if he has nothing, then he shall be sold for his theft.

[4] If the stolen beast is found alive in his possession, whether it is an ox or an ass or a sheep, he shall pay double.

[2] "If a thief is found breaking in, and is struck so that he dies, there shall be no bloodguilt for him;

[3] but if the sun has risen upon him, there shall be bloodguilt for him.

[5] "When a man causes a field or vineyard to be grazed over, or lets his beast loose and it feeds in another man's field, he shall make restitution from the best in his own field and in his own vineyard.

[6] "When fire breaks out and catches in thorns so that the stacked grain or the standing grain or the field is consumed, he that kindled the fire shall make full restitution.

[7] "If a man delivers to his neighbor money or goods to keep, and it is stolen out of the man's house, then, if the thief is found, he shall pay double.

[8] If the thief is not found, the owner of the house shall come near to God, to show whether or not he has put his hand to his neighbor's goods.

[9] "For every breach of trust, whether it is for ox, for ass, for sheep, for clothing, or for any kind of lost thing, of which one says, `This is it,' the case of both parties shall come before God; he whom God shall condemn shall pay double to his neighbor.

[10] "If a man delivers to his neighbor an ass or an ox or a sheep or any beast to keep, and it dies or is hurt or is driven away, without any one seeing it,

[11] an oath by the LORD shall be between them both to see whether he has not put his hand to his neighbor's property; and the owner shall accept the oath, and he shall not make restitution.

[12] But if it is stolen from him, he shall make restitution to its owner.

[13] If it is torn by beasts, let him bring it as evidence; he shall not make restitution for what has been torn.

[14] "If a man borrows anything of his neighbor, and it is hurt or dies, the owner not being with it, he shall make full restitution.

[15] If the owner was with it, he shall not make restitution; if it was hired, it came for its hire.

[16] "If a man seduces a virgin who is not betrothed, and lies with her, he shall give the marriage present for her, and make her his wife.

[17] If her father utterly refuses to give her to him, he shall pay money equivalent to the marriage present for virgins.

[18] "You shall not permit a sorceress to live.

[19] "Whoever lies with a beast shall be put to death.

[20] "Whoever sacrifices to any god, save to the LORD only, shall be utterly destroyed.

[21] "You shall not wrong a stranger or oppress him, for you were strangers in the land of Egypt.

[22] You shall not afflict any widow or orphan.

[23] If you do afflict them, and they cry out to me, I will surely hear their cry;

[24] and my wrath will burn, and I will kill you with the sword, and your wives shall become widows and your children fatherless.

[25] "If you lend money to any of my people with you who is poor, you shall not be to him as a creditor, and you shall not exact interest from him.

[26] If ever you take your neighbor's garment in pledge, you shall restore it to him before the sun goes down;

[27] for that is his only covering, it is his mantle for his body; in what else shall he sleep? And if he cries to me, I will hear, for I am compassionate.

[28] "You shall not revile God, nor curse a ruler of your people.

[29] "You shall not delay to offer from the fulness of your harvest and from the outflow of your presses.

"The first-born of your sons you shall give to me.

[30] You shall do likewise with your oxen and with your sheep: seven days it shall be with its dam; on the eighth day you shall give it to me.

[31] "You shall be men consecrated to me; therefore you shall not eat any flesh that is torn by beasts in the field; you shall cast it to the dogs.
Exodus 23

[1] "You shall not utter a false report. You shall not join hands with a wicked man, to be a malicious witness.

[2] You shall not follow a multitude to do evil; nor shall you bear witness in a suit, turning aside after a multitude, so as to pervert justice;

[3] nor shall you be partial to a poor man in his suit.

[4] "If you meet your enemy's ox or his ass going astray, you shall bring it back to him.

[5] If you see the ass of one who hates you lying under its burden, you shall refrain from leaving him with it, you shall help him to lift it up.

[6] "You shall not pervert the justice due to your poor in his suit.

[7] Keep far from a false charge, and do not slay the innocent and righteous, for I will not acquit the wicked.

[8] And you shall take no bribe, for a bribe blinds the officials, and subverts the cause of those who are in the right.

[9] "You shall not oppress a stranger; you know the heart of a stranger, for you were strangers in the land of Egypt.

[10] "For six years you shall sow your land and gather in its yield;

[11] but the seventh year you shall let it rest and lie fallow, that the poor of your people may eat; and what they leave the wild beasts may eat. You shall do likewise with your vineyard, and with your olive orchard.

[12] "Six days you shall do your work, but on the seventh day you shall rest; that your ox and your ass may have rest, and the son of your bondmaid, and the alien, may be refreshed.

[13] Take heed to all that I have said to you; and make no mention of the names of other gods, nor let such be heard out of your mouth.

[14] "Three times in the year you shall keep a feast to me.

[15] You shall keep the feast of unleavened bread; as I commanded you, you shall eat unleavened bread for seven days at the appointed time in the month of Abib, for in it you came out of Egypt. None shall appear before me empty-handed.

[16] You shall keep the feast of harvest, of the first fruits of your labor, of what you sow in the field. You shall keep the feast of ingathering at the end of the year, when you gather in from the field the fruit of your labor.

[17] Three times in the year shall all your males appear before the Lord GOD.

[18] "You shall not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leavened bread, or let the fat of my feast remain until the morning.

[19] "The first of the first fruits of your ground you shall bring into the house of the LORD your God.

"You shall not boil a kid in its mother's milk.

[20] "Behold, I send an angel before you, to guard you on the way and to bring you to the place which I have prepared.

[21] Give heed to him and hearken to his voice, do not rebel against him, for he will not pardon your transgression; for my name is in him.

[22] "But if you hearken attentively to his voice and do all that I say, then I will be an enemy to your enemies and an adversary to your adversaries.

[23] "When my angel goes before you, and brings you in to the Amorites, and the Hittites, and the Per'izzites, and the Canaanites, the Hivites, and the Jeb'usites, and I blot them out,

[24] you shall not bow down to their gods, nor serve them, nor do according to their works, but you shall utterly overthrow them and break their pillars in pieces.

[25] You shall serve the LORD your God, and I will bless your bread and your water; and I will take sickness away from the midst of you.

[26] None shall cast her young or be barren in your land; I will fulfil the number of your days.

[27] I will send my terror before you, and will throw into confusion all the people against whom you shall come, and I will make all your enemies turn their backs to you.

[28] And I will send hornets before you, which shall drive out Hivite, Canaanite, and Hittite from before you.

[29] I will not drive them out from before you in one year, lest the land become desolate and the wild beasts multiply against you.

[30] Little by little I will drive them out from before you, until you are increased and possess the land.

[31] And I will set your bounds from the Red Sea to the sea of the Philistines, and from the wilderness to the Euphra'tes; for I will deliver the inhabitants of the land into your hand, and you shall drive them out before you.

[32] You shall make no covenant with them or with their gods.

[33] They shall not dwell in your land, lest they make you sin against me; for if you serve their gods, it will surely be a snare to you."

Mark 12:13-17
And they sent to him some of the Pharisees and some of the Hero'di-ans, to entrap him in his talk. And they came and said to him, "Teacher, we know that you are true, and care for no man; for you do not regard the position of men, but truly teach the way of God. Is it lawful to pay taxes to Caesar, or not? Should we pay them, or should we not?" But knowing their hypocrisy, he said to them, "Why put me to the test? Bring me a coin, and let me look at it." And they brought one. And he said to them, "Whose likeness and inscription is this?" They said to him, "Caesar's." Jesus said to them, "Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to God the things that are God's." And they were amazed at him.
Romans 13
Let every person be subject to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except from God, and those that exist have been instituted by God. Therefore he who resists the authorities resists what God has appointed, and those who resist will incur judgment. For rulers are not a terror to good conduct, but to bad. Would you have no fear of him who is in authority? Then do what is good, and you will receive his approval, for he is God's servant for your good. But if you do wrong, be afraid, for he does not bear the sword in vain; he is the servant of God to execute his wrath on the wrongdoer. Therefore one must be subject, not only to avoid God's wrath but also for the sake of conscience. For the same reason you also pay taxes, for the authorities are ministers of God, attending to this very thing. Pay all of them their dues, taxes to whom taxes are due, revenue to whom revenue is due, respect to whom respect is due, honor to whom honor is due. Owe no one anything, except to love one another; for he who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law. The commandments, "You shall not commit adultery, You shall not kill, You shall not steal, You shall not covet," and any other commandment, are summed up in this sentence, "You shall love your neighbor as yourself." Love does no wrong to a neighbor; therefore love is the fulfilling of the law.
The Second Treatise of Civil Government

John Locke
CHAP. I.
Sec. 1. It having been shewn in the foregoing discourse,
1. That Adam had not, either by natural right of fatherhood, or by positive donation from God, any such authority over his children, or dominion over the world, as is pretended:
2. That if he had, his heirs, yet, had no right to it:
3. That if his heirs had, there being no law of nature nor positive law of God that determines which is the right heir in all cases that may arise, the right of succession, and consequently of bearing rule, could not have been certainly determined:
4. That if even that had been determined, yet the knowledge of which is the eldest line of Adam's posterity, being so long since utterly lost, that in the races of mankind and families of the world, there remains not to one above another, the least pretence to be the eldest house, and to have the right of inheritance:
All these premises having, as I think, been clearly made out, it is impossible that the rulers now on earth should make any benefit, or derive any the least shadow of authority from that, which is held to be the fountain of all power, Adam's private dominion and paternal jurisdiction; so that he that will not give just occasion to think that all government in the world is the product only of force and violence, and that men live together by no other rules but that of beasts, where the strongest carries it, and so lay a foundation for perpetual disorder and mischief, tumult, sedition and rebellion, (things that the followers of that hypothesis so loudly cry out against) must of necessity find out another rise of government, another original of political power, and another way of designing and knowing the persons that have it, than what Sir Robert Filmer hath taught us.
Sec. 2. To this purpose, I think it may not be amiss, to set down what I take to be political power; that the power of a MAGISTRATE over a subject may be distinguished from that of a FATHER over his children, a MASTER over his servant, a HUSBAND over his wife, and a LORD over his slave. All which distinct powers happening sometimes together in the same man, if he be considered under these different relations, it may help us to distinguish these powers one from wealth, a father of a family, and a captain of a galley.
Sec. 3. POLITICAL POWER, then, I take to be a RIGHT of making laws with penalties of death, and consequently all less penalties, for the regulating and preserving of property, and of employing the force of the community, in the execution of such laws, and in the defence of the common-wealth from foreign injury; and all this only for the public good.
CHAP. II.
Of the State of Nature.
Sec. 4. TO understand political power right, and derive it from its original, we must consider, what state all men are naturally in, and that is, a state of perfect freedom to order their actions, and dispose of their possessions and persons, as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of nature, without asking leave, or depending upon the will of any other man.
A state also of equality, wherein all the power and jurisdiction is reciprocal, no one having more than another; there being nothing more evident, than that creatures of the same species and rank, promiscuously born to all the same advantages of nature, and the use of the same faculties, should also be equal one amongst another without subordination or subjection, unless the lord and master of them all should, by any manifest declaration of his will, set one above another, and confer on him, by an evident and clear appointment, an undoubted right to dominion and sovereignty.
Sec. 5. This equality of men by nature, the judicious Hooker looks upon as so evident in itself, and beyond all question, that he makes it the foundation of that obligation to mutual love amongst men, on which he builds the duties they owe one another, and from whence he derives the great maxims of justice and charity. His words are,
"The like natural inducement hath brought men to know that it is no less their duty, to love others than themselves; for seeing those things which are equal, must needs all have one measure; if I cannot but wish to receive good, even as much at every man's hands, as any man can wish unto his own soul, how should I look to have any part of my desire herein satisfied, unless myself be careful to satisfy the like desire, which is undoubtedly in other men, being of one and the same nature? To have any thing offered them repugnant to this desire, must needs in all respects grieve them as much as me; so that if I do harm, I must look to suffer, there being no reason that others should shew greater measure of love to me, than they have by me shewed unto them: my desire therefore to be loved of my equals in nature as much as possible may be, imposeth upon me a natural duty of bearing to them-ward fully the like affection; from which relation of equality between ourselves and them that are as ourselves, what several rules and canons natural reason hath drawn, for direction of life, no man is ignorant, Eccl. Pol. Lib. 1."
Sec. 6. But though this be a state of liberty, yet it is not a state of licence: though man in that state have an uncontroulable liberty to dispose of his person or possessions, yet he has not liberty to destroy himself, or so much as any creature in his possession, but where some nobler use than its bare preservation calls for it. The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges every one: and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind, who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions: for men being all the workmanship of one omnipotent, and infinitely wise maker; all the servants of one sovereign master, sent into the world by his order, and about his business; they are his property, whose workmanship they are, made to last during his, not one another's pleasure: and being furnished with like faculties, sharing all in one community of nature, there cannot be supposed any such subordination among us, that may authorize us to destroy one another, as if we were made for one another's uses, as the inferior ranks of creatures are for our's. Every one, as he is bound to preserve himself, and not to quit his station wilfully, so by the like reason, when his own preservation comes not in competition, ought he, as much as he can, to preserve the rest of mankind, and may not, unless it be to do justice on an offender, take away, or impair the life, or what tends to the preservation of the life, the liberty, health, limb, or goods of another.