Organizational and Psychological Factors Influencing Creativity in Basic Science
TABLE ONE INDICATORS OF MAJOR DISCOVERIES
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TABLE ONEINDICATORS OF MAJOR DISCOVERIES1. Discoveries resulting in the Copley Medal, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Society of London, insofar as the award was for basic biomedical research.
†† I have had access to the Nobel Archives for the Physiology or Medicine Prize at the Karolinska Institute and to the Archives at the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in Stockholm for the period from 1901 to 1940. I am most grateful to Ragnar Björk, who did most of the research in the Karolinska Institute’s archives to identify major discoveries according to the indicators in this table. Because the archives are closed for the past 50 years for reasons of confidentiality, I have used other prizes (Lasker, Horwitz, Crafoord) to identify major discoveries in the last several decades. TABLE TWO TWO GENERAL TYPES OF LABORATORIES IN THE BASIC BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES Characteristics of Type A Laboratories 1. Cognitive: High scientific diversity 2. Social: Well connected to invisible colleges (e.g. networks) in diverse fields 3. Material Resources: Access to new instrumentation and funding for high-risk research 4. Personality of lab head: High cognitive complexity, high confidence and motivation 5. Leadership: Excellent grasp of ways that different scientific fields might be integrated and ability to move research in that direction. Characteristics of Type B Laboratories 1. Cognitive: Moderately low scientific diversity 2. Social: Well connected to invisible colleges (e.g. networks) in a single discipline 3. Material Resources: Limited funding for high-risk research 4. Personality of lab head: Lack of high cognitive complexity, limited inclination to conduct high-risk research 5. Leadership: Not greatly concerned with integrating different scientific fields TABLE THREE JEWISH SCIENTISTS WHO MADE MAJOR DISCOVERIES IN BASIC BIOMEDICAL AND RELATED SCIENCES 1901–2005‡ Part One: Jewish Scientists Awarded Nobel Prizes in Physiology of Medicine Paul Ehrlich (1908) Elie Metchnikoff (1908) Robert Bárány (1914) Otto Meyerhof (1922) Karl Landsteiner (1930) Otto Warburg (1931) Otto Loewi (1936) Joseph Erlanger (1944) Herbert Gasser (1944) Sir Ernst Chain (1945) Hermann Muller (1946) Gerty Cori (1947) Tadeus Reichstein (1950) Selman Waksman (1952) Sir Hans Krebs (1953) Fritz Lipmann (1953) Joshua Lederberg (1958) Arthur Kornberg (1959) Konrad Bloch (1964) Francois Jacob (1965) André Lwoff (1965) George Wald (1967) Marshall Nirenberg (1968) Salvador Luria (1969) Julius Axelrod (1970) Sir Bernard Katz (1970) Gerald Edelman (1972) David Baltimore (1975) Howard Temin (1975) Baruch Blumberg (1976) Andrew Schally (1977) Rosalyn Yalow (1977) Daniel Nathans (1978) Baruj Benacerraf (1980) Sir John Vane (1982) César Milstein (1984) Michael Brown (1985) Joseph Goldstein (1985) Stanley Cohen (1986) Rita Levi-Montalcini (1986) Gertrude Elion (1988) Harold Varmus (1989) Edmond Fischer (1992) Alfred Gilman (1994) Martin Rodbell (1994) Stanley Prusiner (1997) Robert Furchgott (1998) Paul Greengard (2000) Eric Kandel (2000) Sydney Brenner (2002) H. Robert Horvitz (2002) Richard Axel (2004) Part Two: Jewish Scientist Awarded Nobel Prizes in Areas of Chemistry Relevant to Basic Biomedical Science Adolph von Baeyer (1905) Henri Moissan (1906) Otto Wallach (1910) Richard Willstätter (1915) Fritz Haber (1918) George de Hevesy (1943) Melvin Calvin (1961) Max Perutz (1962) Christian Anfinsen (1972) William Stein (1972) Ilya Prigogine (1977) Herbert Brown (1979) Paul Berg (1980) Walter Gilbert (1980) Roald Hoffmann (1981) Aaron Klug (1982) Herbert Hauptman (1985) Jerome Karle (1985) John Polanyi (1986) Sidney Altman (1989) Rudolph Marcus (1992) George Olah (1994) Harold Kroto (1996) Walter Kohn (1998) Alan Heeger (2000) Aaron Ciechanover (2004) Avram Hershko (2004) Irwin Rose (2004) Part Three: Jewish Scientists Awarded the Lasker Award in Basic Biomedical Science Selman Waksman (1948) Sir Hans Krebs (1953) Michael Heidelberger (1953) George Wald (1953) Theodore Puck (1958) Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat (1958) Jules Freund (1959) Harry Rubin (1964) Bernard Brodie (1967) Marshall Nirenberg (1968) Seymour Benzer (1971) Sydney Brenner (1971) Charles Yanofsky (1971) Ludwik Gross (1974) Sol Spiegelman (1974) Howard Temin (1974) Andrew Schally (1975) Rosalyn Yalow (1976) Sir John Vane (1977) Hans Kosterlitz (1978) Solomon Snyder (1978) Walter Gilbert (1979) Paul Berg (1980) Stanley N. Cohen (1980) Harold Varmus (1982) Eric Kandel (1983) César Milstein (1984) Michael Brown (1985) Joseph Goldstein (1985) Rita Levi-Montalcini (1986) Stanley Cohen (1986) Philip Leder (1987) Alfred Gilman (1989) Stanley Prusiner (1994) Jack Strominger (1995) Robert Furchgott (1996) Mark Ptashne (1997) Aaron Ciechanover (2000) Avram Hershko (2000) Alexander Varshavsky (2000) James Rothman (2002) Randy Schekman (2002) Part Four: Jewish Scientist Awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize Marshall Nirenberg (1968) Salvador Luria (1969) Harry Eagle (1973) Theodore Puck (1973) Boris Ephrussi (1974) Seymour Benzer (1976) Charles Yanofsky (1976) Michael Heidelberger (1977) Elvin Kabat (1977) Walter Gilbert (1979) César Milstein (1980) Aaron Klug (1981) Stanley Cohen (1983) Viktor Hamburger (1983) Rita Levi-Montalcini (1983) Michael Brown (1984) Joseph Goldstein (1984) Mark Ptashne (1985) Alfred Gilman (1989) Stephen Harrison (1990) Michael Rossmann (1990) Stanley Prusiner (1997) Arnold Levine (1998) Bert Vogelstein (1998) H. Robert Horvitz (2000) Avram Hershko (2001) Alexander Varshavsky (2001) James Rothman (2002) Randy Schekman (2002) Ada Yonath (2005) ‡ More than 90 percent of the individuals in this table had two Jewish parents. Also listed are a few individuals who had one parent who was Jewish and one who was not. Several (e.g., Karl Landsteiner and Gerty Cori) converted from Judaism to Catholicism. For purposes of this paper, this kind of issue is not highly relevant, for the concern is whether the individual internalized multiple cultures. Anyone who reads the biographies of Landsteiner (Rous, 1945; Speiser and Smekal, 1975) or Cori (McGrayne, 1993) will observe that they clearly internalized multiple cultures—partly because of their Jewish ancestry. For additional information on this subject, see “Jewish Nobel Prize Winners,” http://www.jinfo.org/ Nobel_Prizes.html (accessed 3 May 2006); “Jewish Winners of the Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research,” http://www.jinfo.org/Biology_Lasker_Basic.html (accessed 3 May 2006); “Jewish Winners of the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize,” http://www.jinfo.org/ Biology_Horwitz.html (accessed 3 May 2006); Hargittai, 2002. TABLE FOUR** TWENTIETH CENTURY SCIENTISTS WHO MADE MAJOR DISCOVERIES WHO WERE ALSO QUITE ACTIVE IN MUSIC, ART, WRITING, CRAFTS, AND POLITICS * Received Nobel, Lasker, Horwitz, Crafoord Prize and/or Copley Medal. # Scientists whose discoveries resulted in 10 nominations in three different years prior to 1940 for a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine or in Chemistry if the research had high relevance to biomedical science. Musicians: Luis Alvarez* Physicist Clay Armstrong* Biologist Oswald T. Avery* Microbiologist Georg von Békésy* Physiologist Walter B. Cannon# Physiologist Ernst Chain* Chemist Louis De Broglie* Physicist Gerald Edelman* Biologist Manfred Eigen* Chemist Albert Einstein* Physicist Richard Feynman* Physicist Otto Frisch Physicist Michael Heidelberger# Chemist Werner Heisenberg* Physicist Gerhard Herzberg* Chemist William Lipscomb* Chemist Jacques Loeb# Biologist Ernst Mach Physicist Barbara McClintock* Geneticist Lise Meitner Physicist Albert A. Michelson* Physicist Jacques Monod* Biologist Rolf Nevanlinna Mathematician Wilhelm Ostwald* Physical Chemist Max Planck* Physicist Mark Ptashne* Biologist Ronald Ross* Biologist Solomon Snyder* Biologist Arnold Sommerfeld Physicist Charles Stevens Biologist Joseph J. Sylvester Mathematician Axel Hugo Theorell* Physiologist Georges Urbain Physicist Paul Urban Physicist J.H. Van’t Hoff* Physical Chemist Emil Warburg* Biologist/Chemist Victor Weisskopf Physicist Edmund B. Wilson Biologist Composers of Music: Albert A. Michelson* Physicist Ronald Ross* Biologist Walter Thirring Physicist Georges Urbain Chemist Poets: Marie Curie* Physical Chemist Fritz Haber* Chemist Otto Hahn* Physical Chemist A.V. Hill* Biologist Roald Hoffmann* Chemist Otto Meyerhof* Biologist S.H. Mueller Mathematician H.J. Muller* Geneticist Walther Nernst* Physical Chemist William Ramsay* Physical Chemist Charles Richet* Physiologist Ronald Ross* Biologist Erwin Schrödinger* Physicist Charles Sherrington* Physiologist J. H. Van’t Hoff* Physical Chemist Selman A. Waksman* Bacteriologist Richard Willstätter* Chemist
Dramatists: Fritz Haber* Chemist Charles Richet* Physiologist Novelists: Carl Djerassi Chemist Fred Hoyle Astrophysicist Charles Richet* Physiologist Norbert Wiener Cyberneticist Painters and Sketchers: Edgar Adrian* Physiologist Frederick Banting* Physiologist Joseph Barcroft# Physiologist Theodor Boveri* Biologist William Bragg* Physicist Lawrence Bragg* Physicist Ernst Brücke Physiologist Harvey Cushing# Surgeon H. von Euler-Chelpin* Biochemist Richard Feynman* Physicist Alexander Fleming* Bacteriologist Howard Florey* Chemist Roger Guillemin* Physiologist Cyril Hinshelwood* Physical Chemist Dorothy Hodgkin* Chemist Joseph Lister# Physician Otto Loewi* Physiologist Konrad Lorenz* Ethologist Wilhelm Ostwald* Physical Chemist Louis Pasteur Biologist S. Ramon y Cajal* Neuroanatomist E.A. Scharpey-Schaefer* Physiologist Nico Tinbergen* Biologist E. O. Wilson* Biologist Sculptors: Robert Holley* Biochemist Salvadore Luria* Biologist Roger Sperry* Biologist Georges Urbain Physicist Drafters: Luis Alvarez* Physicist George Beadle* Biologist Linus Pauling* Physical Chemist William Ramsay* Physical Chemist Involved in Architecture: Gunter Blöbel* Biologist Otto Hahn* Chemist Peter Mitchell* Biologist Robert G. Roeder Biologist Photographers: Patrick Blackett* Physicist Gertrude Elion* Biochemist Howard Florey* Chemist Tim Hunt* Biochemist Robert Koch* Bacteriologist Gabriel Lippman* Physicist Wilhelm Ostwald* Physical Chemist S. Ramon y Cajal* Neuroanatomist Wilhelm Roentgen* Physicist Ernest Rutherford* Physicist E.A. Sharpey-Schaefer* Physician Nico Tinbergen* Biologist Charles T.R. Wilson* Physicist
Woodworkers or Metalworkers: Luis Alvarez* Physicist Joseph Barcroft* Physiologist Georg von Békésy* Physiologist William Bayliss* Physiologist Walter Cannon# Physiologist Gerald Edelman* Biologist J. Willard Gibbs Physicist Walter Rudolf Hess* Biologist Andrew Huxley* Biologist Barbara McClintock* Geneticist Wilhelm Ostwald* Physical Chemist Louis Pasteur Physician/Immunologist William Ramsay* Physical Chemist Theodor Svedberg* Physical Chemist Scientists Who Wrote Philosophy, History, Anthropology, and/or Popular Science: Paul Berg* Biologist Baruch Blumberg* Biologist Niels Bohr* Physicist Pierre Broca Biologist Alexis Carrel* Biologist Erwin Chargaff Biochemist Andre Cournand* Biologist Frances Crick* Biologist/Physicist Richard Dawkins Biologist/Ethologist John Eccles* Biologist Gerald Edelman* Biologist Manfred Eigen* Chemist Albert Einstein* Physicist Richard Feyman* Physicist Sigmund Freud# Physician/Psychiatrist Simon Flexner# Biologist Murray Gell-Mann* Physicist Stephen J. Gould Biologist Stephen Hawking Physicist Werner Heisenberg* Physicist Fred Hoyle Astrophysicist Francois Jacob* Biologist Eric Kandel* Biologist Hans Krebs* Biochemist M.T.F. von Laue* Physicist Joshua Lederberg* Biologist Richard Lewontin Biologist Ernst Mach Physicist Ernst Mayr* Biologist Peter Medawar* Biologist Otto Meyerhof* Biologist Robert Millikan* Physicist Jacques Monod* Biologist Wilhelm Ostwald* Physical Chemist Max Perutz* Chemist Max Planck* Physicist Henri Poincaré Mathematician Michael Polanyi Chemist Ilya Prigogine* Physicist S. Ramon y Cajal* Biologist Martin Rees Astrophysicist/Cosmologist Peyton Rous* Biologist Oliver Sacks Neurologist Carl Sagan Astronomer Erwin Schrödinger* Physicist Charles Sherrington* Physiologist Nikolaas Tinbergen* Biologist/Ethologist J.H. Van’t Hoff* Chemist James D. Watson* Biologist Steven Weinberg* Physicist E. O. Wilson* Biologist
Political Activists: John Desmond Bernal Physicist Patrick Blackett* Physicist Niels Bohr* Physicist John Cockcroft* Physicist Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin* Chemist Paul Doty Chemist Frédéric Joliot-Curie* Chemist Irene Joliot-Curie* Chemist Albert Einstein* Physicist James Franck* Physicist Archibald Vivian Hill* Biologist Robert Koch* Biologist Joshua Lederberg* Biologist Hendrik Antoon Lorentz* Physicist Salvador Luria* Biologist Matthew Meselson Biologist Jacques Monod* Biologist Nevill Mott* Physicist Robert Oppenheimer Physicist John Polanyi* Chemist Linus Pauling* Physical Chemist Ronald Ross* Biologist/Physician Abdus Salam* Physicist Richard Synge* Chemist Leo Szilard Physicist Edward Teller Physicist James D. Watson* Biologist Victor Weisskopf Physicist ** In the preparation of the material for Table Four, I am not only indebted to all of the individuals whom I interviewed for this paper (see references above) but especially to the scholarship of Robert Scott Root-Bernstein and to the following published references: Brandmüller, Josef and Claus, Reinhard (1982) “Symmetry: Its Significance in Science and Art.”, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 7: 296–308. Curtin, Deane W. (1982) The Aesthetic Dimension of Science: 1980 Nobel Conference. New York: Philosophical Library. Eiduson, Bernice T. (1962) Scientists: Their Psychological World. New York: Basic Books. Furguson, Eugene (1977) “The Mind’s Eye: Nonverbal Thought in Technology,” Science 197: 827–36. Hammond, Allen L. (ed.) (1985) A Passion to Know: Twenty Profiles in Science. New York: Scribner. Hindle, Brooke (1981) Emulation and Invention. New York: New York University Press. Kassler, Jamie C. (1982) “Music As A Model in Early Science”, History of Science, 20: 103–39. Lepage, Geoffrey (1961) Art and the Scientist. Bristol: J. Wright. Levarie, Siegmund (1980) “Music As A Structural Model”, Journal of Social and Biological Structures, 3: 237–45. Miller, Arthur I. (1984) Imagery in Scientific Thought: Creating Twentieth Century Physics. Boston: Birkhäuser. Nachmansohn, David (1979) German Jewish Pioneers in Science, 1900–1933: Highlights in Physics, Chemistry, and Biochemistry. Berlin and New York: Springer-Verlag. Nickles, Thomas (ed.) (1980) Scientific Discovery: Case Studies. Boston: Kluwer. Nye, Mary Jo. (2004) Blackett: Physics, War, and Politics in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge,MA: Harvard University Press. Ostwald, Wilhelm (1912) Les Grands Hommes. Paris: E. Flammarion. Rauscher, Francis H. and Shaw, Gordon L. (1998) “Key Components of the Mozart Effect,” Perceptual and Motor Skills, 86: 835–41. Ritterbush, Philip C. (1968) The Art of Organic Forms. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. Roe, Anne (1951) “A Study of Imagery in Research Scientists,” Journal of Personality, 19: 459–70. Roe, Ann (1953) The Making of a Scientist. New York: Dodd, Mead. Root-Bernstein, Robert Scott (1989) Discovering. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (especially pp. 312–342). Root-Bernstein, Robert Scott and Root-Bernstein, Michèle M. (1999) Sparks of Genius. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Tinbergen, Niko (2003) Nico’s Nature: The Life of Nico Tinbergen and His Science of Animal Behaviour. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Van’t Hoff, Jacobus H. (1967) “Imagination in Science,” Molecular Biology, Biochemistry, and Biophysics, I: 1–18. Tr. Georg F. Springer. Waddington, Conrad Hal (1969) Behind Appearance: A Study of the Relations Between Painting and the Natural Sciences in This Century. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Wechsler, Judith (ed.) (1978) On Aesthetics in Science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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A B C D Exposure to Cultural Diversity Integration of Cultural Diversity Yüklə 199,28 Kb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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