40
Arienne M. Dwyer
Principle 5: Archive and disseminate your data and results
Researchers must avoid being buried with their unpublished field notes and
recordings. Within bounds of informed consent, those working with endan-
gered-language communities have an obligation to appropriately store and
publish data and analyses. Even in imperfect form, ordered, shared data are
more useful than no data; disseminating or at least properly archiving col-
lected data is far more respectful to a speaker community than piling it in
the back of a closet. Hence, many field researchers now believe that best-
practice archiving (cf. EMELD 2000 –2005) and dissemination (in any for-
mat) should be a requirement of fieldwork.
Such principles sketch out the bare minimum in ethical linguistic fieldwork
practice. For more elaborated documents, see AIATSIS (2000) and the Af-
rican Studies Association (n.d.).
1.5. Potential problems: some examples
1.5.1. The observer’s paradox and covert research
The requirement of obtaining informed consent rules out covert research,
i.e. recording
without
speaker’s
knowledge. The
deception
inherent
in
covert
research renders it taboo for many who do fieldwork. Yet many social scien-
tists routinely pretend to be ordinary citizens in order to obtain a naturalistic
view of their research subjects: they, for example, join a group that believes
in UFOs, work desk jobs for the sensationalist newspaper Bild Zeitung, or
staff a Wal-Mart store to reveal the group or corporate practices (Wallraff
1977, Ehrenreich 2002). Such fieldworkers and journalists will vocifer-
ously defend their enterprise.
In
anthropology
and
linguistics
fieldwork,
a
researcher’s
presence
changes
the phenomena under observation, often making conversation less sponta-
neous. Most field workers simply attempt to minimize the intrusiveness of
their presence (the so-called observer’s paradox [Labov 1971: 171]) by, for
example, using a small recording device, or by having native-speaker insid-
ers conduct the field research. These methods have provided adequate data
and have been seen as ethically sound by the majority of field linguists and
community researchers.
However, since the observer is always intrusive to some extent, some
language researchers have decided to make surreptitious recordings. This
Chapter 2 – Ethics and practicalities of cooperative fieldwork and analysis
41
issue is so controversial among language researchers and language activists
that it is usually dismissed out of hand. But such practices do exist, and
therefore merit some discussion here. Covert recording has been reviewed
by Allen (1997) and defended by Larmouth et al. (1992), who examined
U.S. state and federal laws. Harvey (1992) argues that occasional surrepti-
tious recording simply constitutes a greater degree of non-disclosure in a
research environment where all researchers inevitably withhold some in-
formation from native speaker-consultants. (For example, a researcher may
ask a consultant to converse freely when she is really only interested in the
relative clauses produced.) When not based on clearly-delineated ethical
principles, though, this rationalization for covert research is untenable.
When might covert research be acceptable for some linguists, then? One
technique which appears to satisfy both the need for spontaneity and in-
formed consent is the following: (1) recordists and speakers already have a
trusting working relationship; (2) the researcher surreptitiously records
spontaneous speech of said speakers, if and only if (3) the subject of the
speech is estimated to be non-sensitive, and (4) the speakers are immedi-
ately afterwards given the option of informed consent, i.e. they listen to the
recording to decide whether or not it should be erased or kept.
Community members and outside researchers together must develop a
policy on covert recording for every research project. If covert research is
allowed, then the terms should be specified. One model is the American
Sociological Association’s statement (1997: sect. 12.05).
7
Nonetheless, the ethics of covert research are far from clear-cut. Thomas
and Marquart (1987: 11–12) argue that ethics codes and academic goals are
often completely contradictory. They suggest that rather than rationalizing
behavior, academic researchers should instead squarely face each ethical
dilemma as a matter of honor: “The operative question should not be ‘Does
behaviour violate the ASA ethical code,’ but instead ‘Did the researcher, in
this given situation, act honourably?” Most important, however, is whether
or not local people accept as ethical post-facto consent to surreptitious re-
cordings. If there is any doubt, it is best to avoid covert recording entirely.
1.5.2. Change in permissions
Sometimes a speaker who has given permission for material to be used in
research and/or publicly disseminated later wants it removed. The re-
searcher or archivist faces the dilemma of whether or not to remove the
material, even though archiving was one of the original goals of that re-