Developing cooperative learning in efl contents. Introduction

Cooperative learning strategies in use
Foyle and Lyman (1988) identify the basic steps involved in successful implementation of cooperative learning activities:
1. The content to be taught is identified, and criteria for mastery are determined by the teacher.
2. The most useful cooperative learning technique is identified, and the group
size is determined by the teacher.
3. Students are assigned to groups.
4. The classroom is arranged to facilitate group interaction.
5. Group processes are taught or reviewed as needed to assure that the groups
run smoothly.
6. The teacher develops expectations for group learning and makes sure students
understand the purpose of the learning that will take place. A time line for
activities is made clear to students.
7. The teacher presents initial material as appropriate, using whatever
techniques she or he chooses.
8. The teacher monitors student interaction in the groups, and provides
assistance and clarification as needed. The teacher reviews group skills and
facilitates problem-solving when necessary.
9. Student outcomes are evaluated. Students must individually demonstrate
mastery of important skills or concepts of the learning. Evaluation is based on
observations of student performance or oral responses to questions; paper and
pencil need not be used.
10. Groups are rewarded for success. Verbal praise by the teacher, or
recognition in the class newsletter or on the bulletin board can be used to
reward high-achieving groups.


2.2. The role of teachers and students in cooperative learning
Teachers’ role in cooperative learning
Research into the role of the teacher in CL highlights how profoundly CL differs from other methods of teaching. (Harwood, 1989) found the role changes when pupils are working in small groups, although the self-directed nature of talk disappears when the teacher is present with groups.
Ashman and Gillies (2003) summarise the benefits of the changing role of the teacher as:
'perhaps the greatest benefit of peer mediation derives from the type and level of interaction that occurs in a context in which the responsibility for learning does not rest solely with the teacher but is shared among teacher and students.' ³².
The management of cooperative learning is also complex for the teacher, particularly if groups are working on different tasks. Delegating authority to allow children to solve problems showed that those classrooms that did so successfully had greatest learning gains (Cohen, Lotan & Leechor, 1989). In addition when cooperative learning tasks are problem-solving or discovery tasks, it is necessary for the teacher to avoid direct supervision and to ensure talking and working together within groups (Perrow, 1967). For many teachers this was difficult as there was a fear of loss of control of the class (Cohen and Intili, 1981) although the introdu[ction of a system of self-monitoring by students helped, alongside roles in groups, and training in cooperative learning skills.
Richards and Rodgers³³ (2001: 199) summarise what teachers should do when adopting group work instruction, saying that:
The teacher has to create a highly structured and well-organized learning environment in the classroom, setting goals, planning and structuring tasks, establishing the physical arrangement of the classroom, assigning students to groups and roles, and selecting materials and time. Because teachers in CL classes perform considerably different roles from those they are used to play in traditional settings, Johnson and Johnson (1999; cited in Gillies et al., 2008) made a classification of three major types of CL in an attempt to clarify the teacher's roles in each of them. Those types are: Formal Cooperative Learning, Informal Cooperative Learning, and Cooperative Base Groups.
Formal Cooperative Learning
It is the type of CL where students join together in order to perform a specific task such as writing a report or carrying out a project. The learners' teams are formed to last from one class session to several weeks; they work on the task until it is finished and their cooperative outcome is assessed.
According to Johnson and Johnson (1999; cited in Gillies et al., 2008), in a formal CL class, the teacher has to perform several tasks.
a. S/he has to make decisions before structuring this activity through setting academic and social skills objectives, determining how many students are required to create a group, deciding on the way to choose students (randomly or according to some criteria), assigning roles to group members, and arranging the room and the material.
b. His/her duty is also to explain the task and the way to complete it successfully. S/he establishes positive interdependence and individual accountability as well as clarifies what social skills and behaviours are to be used. In addition, there is extensive focus on intergroup cooperation to avoid any kind of competition among group members.
c. His/her other role is to monitor students' performance and intervene when
difficulty and disagreement appear in a group. During the task, the teacher moves around the class and observes the groups to collect data on students' promotive interaction and their use of effective interpersonal and small group skills; thus, s/he creates individual accountability and encourages students to be constructive. While monitoring, Richards and Rodgers³⁴ (suggest that teacher sought to speak less and redirect students by asking them questions to challenge their consideration of the problem as well as give them feedback.
d. His/her other responsibility is to evaluate students' learning and contribution, and serve as a guide and a director while group members discuss how well they functioned. This takes place when the teacher decides to end the lesson.
Furthermore, s/he encourages students to adopt a plan for effective changes in group procedures and to celebrate their efforts.