Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods

Chapter 1

• Introduction and Research Methods

What is Psychology?

• The science of behavior and mental processes

• Behavior—observable actions of a person or animal
• Mind—thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, memories, dreams, motives and other subjective experiences
• Science—an objective way to answer questions based on observable facts/data and well-described methods

Philosophical Developments

• A Question: How are mind and body related?

Philosophical Developments

• Another Question: Nature vs. Nurture

Foundations of Modern Psychology

• Separated from philosophy in 19th century

• influences from physiology remain

• Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)

• Leipzig, Germany
• wrote the first psychology textbook
• applied laboratory techniques to study of the mind
• structuralism—identify ‘atoms’ of the mind
• focused on basic sensory and perceptual processes
• measured reaction times

Other Pioneers

• Edward Titchener (1867–1927)

• Wundt’s student, professor at Cornell University

• William James (1842–1910)

• started psychology at Harvard in 1870s
• opposed Wundt and Titchener’s approach
• functionalism – influenced by Darwin to focus on how behaviors help us adapt to the environment

• Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)

• Austrian physician that focused on illness
• psychoanalytic theory of mental disorders

Other Pioneers

• John B. Watson (1878–1958)

• psychologists should study overt behavior

• B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

• American psychologist at Harvard
• studied learning and effect of reinforcement
• behaviorism

Perspectives

• Perspective is a way of viewing phenomena

• Psychology has multiple perspectives

• Biological
• Psychodynamic
• Behavioral
• Humanistic
• Cognitive
• Cross-Cultural
• Evolutionary

Biological Perspective

• Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior

• Focus may be at various levels

• individual neurons
• areas of the brain
• specific functions like eating, emotion, or learning

• Interest in behavior distinguishes biological psychology from many other biological sciences

Psychodynamic Perspective

• View of behavior based on experience treating patients

• Psychoanalytic approach (Sigmund Freud)

• both a method of treatment and a theory of the mind
• behavior reflects combinations of conscious and unconscious influences
• drives and urges within the unconscious component of mind influence thought and behavior
• early childhood experiences shape unconscious motivations

Behavioral Perspective

• View of behavior based on experience or learning

• Classical conditioning
• Operant conditioning

Humanistic Perspective

• Developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

• behavior reflects innate ‘actualization’
• focus on conscious forces and self perception
• more positive view of basic forces than Freud’s

Cognitive Perspective

• How is knowledge acquired, organized, remembered, and used to guide behavior?

• Influences include

• Piaget – studied intellectual development
• Chomsky – studied language
• Cybernetics – science of information processing

Cross-Cultural Perspective

• The study of psychological differences among people living in different cultural groups

• How are people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior influenced by their culture?

• What are the common elements across culture? Are these innate?

Evolutionary Perspective

• Influenced by Darwin and the emphasis on innate, adaptive behavior patterns

• Application of principles of evolution to explain behavior and psychological processes

Scientific Method

• Formulate testable questions

• Develop hypotheses

• Design study to collect data

• Experimental
• Descriptive

• Analyze data to arrive at conclusions

• Use of statistical procedures
• Use of meta-analysis

• Report results

• Publication
• Replication

Theory

• Tentative explanation for observed findings

• Results from accumulation of findings of individual studies

• Tool for explaining observed behavior

• Reflects self-correcting nature of scientific method.

Science vs. Common Sense

• Science helps build explanations that are consistent and predictive rather than conflicting and postdictive (hindsight)

• Science is based on

• knowledge of facts
• developing theories
• testing hypotheses
• public and repeatable procedures

Research Strategies

• Descriptive—strategies for observing and describing behavior

• Naturalistic observation
• Case studies
• Surveys
• Correlational methods

• Experimental—strategies for inferring cause and effect relationships among variables

Definitions

• Hypothesis—tentative statement about the relationship between variables

• Variables—factors that can vary in ways that can be observed, measured, and verified (independent versus dependent)

• Operational definition—precise description of how the variables will be measured

Samples and Sampling

• Population—large (potentially infinite) group represented by the sample. Findings are generalized to this group.

• Sample—selected segment of the population

• Representative sample—closely parallels the population on relevant characteristics

• Random selection—every member of larger group has equal change of being selected for the study sample

Ethical Guidelines

• Informed consent and voluntary participation

• Students as participants

• Use of deception

• Confidentiality of records

• Information about the study and debriefing