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composers who came of age while Beethoven was still alive, such as Mendelssohn and
Schumann, to write symphonies. Was there anything left to say in opera? Therefore
Mahler deeply admired and envied Strauss’s successful turn to different subjects (e.g.,
Salome) and his capacity to write modern operas using techniques beyond Wagner
developed through the composition of tone poems for orchestra.
For Mahler, Bruckner’s instinct to return to the symphonic form using the compositional
innovations of Wagner was decisive. Wagner had demonstrated how repetition and
intense and unconventional harmonic color could be used to expand musical time and
deliver a complex narrative of emotion. Motivated in part by a spiritual sensibility,
Bruckner charted new ground and wrote magnificent monumental essays in sonority and
lyric beauty. Mahler went a step further and turned to the task of merging two apparently
unrelated forms—song and symphony—in order to create a dramatic musical fabric on a
Brucknerian scale quite different in character from Bruckner. The song offered the
subject, one common in opera: love and death. The symphonic form provided the
framework for a complex elaboration of narration and emotional expression that
demanded a wide range of sounds, and a rapid alternation between the intimate and the
grand gesture, between repose and agitation. The task was a radically realistic one within
a profoundly abstract art form: to encode the experience of human life and the external
world into instrumental music.
In addition, music by connecting with life had to transform the experience of the
everyday. In Mahler’s symphonies, sounds of the street, bands, funeral processions, folk
melodies, and the lullaby all make their appearance, creating in each work a kaleidoscope
of experience through music that forces an internal dialogue of reflection. The composer
became the protagonist of a subjective account of the essential struggle of life. The life
was that in modern times, human existence marked by the contradictions generated by a
receding rural landscape and a burgeoning industrial and urban world.
The keen awareness of being heir to an unbroken tradition of music making from Bach to
Bruckner led Mahler to strike out on his own by shaping his voice out of fragments of
memory and familiarity. His reserve with respect to the music of Brahms is instructive.
Although a member of an older generation Brahms also struggled with the self-
consciousness of arriving late, so to speak, after the towering achievements not only of
Beethoven but also the generation of the early romantics that followed, including Chopin,
Mendelssohn, and Schumann. Brahms found his calling as a composer in the goal of
extending the tradition he had inherited. Overcome with a sense of pessimism and a
feeling of being just too late, Brahms saw himself as working in the autumn of a cultural
tradition, against the tide of history and not at the point of a new dawn. This lent his
music a deeply affecting interiority, sadness and nostalgia and its conservative and
determined allegiance to an established craft of composition.
Wagner inspired the generation of Mahler and Strauss to reject Brahms’s profound
modesty in relationship to the past, any sense of the apparent inferiority of the modern in
comparison to music’s ancients, the classical heritage of musical composition from Bach
to Beethoven. Although Strauss, who revered Mozart, was more conservative, ironic,
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elusive, and indirect in revealing his subjectivity as a composer than Mahler, he reveled
in the possibilities of modernity, particularly before 1914. So too did Mahler, who took
from Wagner a belief in the progressive expansion in history of the possibilities of
musical expression beyond the limits of inherited practice.
Mahler shared the conviction of the visual artists of his generation, inscribed in Joseph
Maria Olbrich’s Secession building, completed in Vienna the year Mahler became music
director at the Imperial Opera House: “To each age its art and to art its freedom.” Mahler
did not see himself trapped in an age of cultural decline. In this regard Mahler’s
experience as a performer of the music of the past deeply influenced his work as a
composer. He knew what his audience, the greatly expanded public for music that
emerged by the end of the 19th century, responded to. He could anticipate the many
meanings the inherited vocabulary of musical rhetoric held for the public. Wagner’s
innovations in the use of thematic fragments as signifiers and his expansion of harmony
seemed to have completed a progressive development of music as a varied and complex
language. And Mahler shaped that language his own way, often in open defiance of
inherited standards of beauty and coherence. He sought to write music on a large canvas,
music that communicated an ethical urgency, one of resistance and truth telling, intended
to be more than pleasing entertainment. But an underlying sense of insecurity never left
Mahler. It is perceptible in his never ending efforts to revise, edit and improve his own
works, even after their publication.
In his First Symphony in D Major (1888) Mahler experimented with pure sound as
evocative of nature. The opening bars of the first movement, punctuated by bird calls,
suggest a visual landscape. Indeed the first movement was originally described as a
reminiscence of youth, replete with suggestions of flowers, fruits, and thorns. The
symphony proceeds to tell a story, much like a novel, using familiar folk tunes and
memories of village wind bands to communicate the sense of memory, dreams about
spring, and the human comedy. The work is indebted to the early romantic literary
fantasy worlds of E.T.A. Hoffmann and Jean Paul, but ends with a sense of affirmative
triumph.
In the Second and Third Symphonies Mahler expanded his palette of sound by adding
solo voices and chorus. The Second Symphony in C Minor (1894) uses texts from
Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (with some text added by the composer) and Des Knaben
Wunderhorn. The original title, “Todtenfeier” (Ceremony for the Dead), was taken from
the Polish poet Adam Mickiewicz. The symphony was ultimately given the subtitle
“Resurrection.” The work emulates the integration of voices and orchestra found in
Beethoven’s Ninth, but seeks to create a more spiritual and theatrical drama about life
and death. It contains a movement for solo alto and orchestra and ends with a final choral
movement, a jubilant assertion of immortality and salvation.
The Third Symphony in D Minor (1896), again uses solo voices (soprano and alto), but
only a chorus of women and children with orchestra. The overarching literary inspiration
stems from Nietzsche, as did the original subtitle “The Joyful Wisdom” (Die fröhliche
Wissenschaft). As in the First Symphony, Mahler’s subject is man’s relationship to