1. Comparative-Historical Method

b > p
R слабый > Gt slepan
d > t	R два > ME two
g > k	R иго > ME yoke

3. IE voiceless plosives (stops) > CG voiceless fricatives

p > f	Sanskr pitar, Lat pater > Gt fadar, OE fæder
t > ƀ	Sanskr trayas, R три > Gt ƀreis, OE ƀrie
k > h	Lat noctem > Gt nahts

b d g
p t k
f ƀ h
bh dh gh

B. Verner's Law – Voicing Law (CG)

Karl Verner

1875

discovered a law of phonetic change in

PIE ˃ CG due to the position of stress.

Verner noticed that in Germanic strong verbs

Verner noticed that in Germanic strong verbs

• voiceless spirants in intervocal position appear in those cases when in Sanskrit stress falls on the root,
• and the voiced spirants appear when in Sanskrit stress falls on the ending.

PG voiceless spirants f, ƀ, x, s in intervocal position and in the ending remained voiceless, if the main stress fell on the preceding vowel. If the preceding vowel was not stressed by the primary stress, the spirants f, ƀ, x, s became voiced > b, d, g, z.

• PG voiceless spirants f, ƀ, x, s in intervocal position and in the ending remained voiceless, if the main stress fell on the preceding vowel. If the preceding vowel was not stressed by the primary stress, the spirants f, ƀ, x, s became voiced > b, d, g, z.
• f > b Lat cáput; ON hofoƀ; Gt haubiƀ; OS hōbid;

OHG houbit (голова)

• ƀ > d Sanskr matār, R мать; OS modár;
• x > g Greek dekas; R десять; Gt tigus;

ON tiger; OE OS tig;

• s > z

If an IE voiceless stop (p, t, k) was proceeded by an unstressed vowel, the voiceless fricative (f, ƀ, h) which developed from it in accordance with Grimm's Law became voiced, and later this voiced fricative became a voiced stop (b, d, g).

• If an IE voiceless stop (p, t, k) was proceeded by an unstressed vowel, the voiceless fricative (f, ƀ, h) which developed from it in accordance with Grimm's Law became voiced, and later this voiced fricative became a voiced stop (b, d, g).

Eg. Greek déka; дéсять > Gt táihun;

BUT: dekás; десяток > tigus

If the preceding vowel is unstressed, s in Germanic languages becomes voiced, changes into z. Eventually this z becomes r in Western Germanic and Nothern Germanic languages. This latter change z >r is termed rhotacism.

If the preceding vowel is unstressed, s in Germanic languages becomes voiced, changes into z. Eventually this z becomes r in Western Germanic and Nothern Germanic languages. This latter change z >r is termed rhotacism.

Common Germanic Vowelshift

Germanic languages have some peculiarities in the sphere of vowel sounds, which distinguish them from other IE languages. Their main characteristic in the sphere is the treatment of the IE o, ā, which is called