The Role of Antimicrobial Peptides in Periodontal Disease
321
Suttichai Krisanaprakornkit and Sakornrat Khongkhunthian
Index
353
Preface
Periodontal disease is a chronic bacterial infection characterized by persistent
inflammation, connective tissue breakdown and alveolar bone destruction. The chronic
inflammation associated with periodontal disease represents the host response to bacterial
plaque, mediated by the environment in which the response occurs. This book presents topical
research data in the study of periodontal disease, including aesthetic periodontal therapy and
root coverage techniques; clinical features of periodontal diseases in children and adolescents;
biomechanics and the perioprosthetic patient; maternal periodontitis and perinatal outcomes;
identifying patients with enhanced disease susceptibility in periodontal disease; and
inflammatory mediators and oxidative stress in periodontal disease.
Chapter I - Aesthetic considerations have influenced the management of dental maladies
in varying degrees for many years. For many years the goals of periodontal surgery have been
determined by functional aspects only. During recent years periodontal surgery has shifted its
focus from achieving more functional goals toward a combination of both good functional
and esthetic results. While accomplishing the best possible functional result, esthetics should
not only be maintained, but also enhanced. Sometimes the esthetic outcome is the only
important factor and function becomes secondary (e.g. treatment of recessions or the creation
of papillae). Predictability becomes the key word in this type of periodontal surgery. Patient
awareness and expectations have increased recently to the point that less than optimal
esthetics is no longer an acceptable outcome. Periodontal plastic surgery would accordingly
be defined as ―surgical procedures performed to prevent or correct anatomic, developmental,
traumatic or disease induced defects in the gingiva, alveolar mucosa or bone‖. The present
chapter is presenting and discussing the clinical outcomes of several root coverage
techniques: pedicle soft tissue grafts, rotational flaps, coronally advanced flap, semilunar flap,
free soft tissue graft, nonsubmerged grafts, submerged grafts etc.
Chapter II - The clinical features of periodontal diseases in children and adolescents
differ from those in adults. Periodontitis is extremely rare in children, except those
complicated with certain kinds of systemic diseases, whereas gingivitis is commonly
encountered. Childhood gingivitis can be reversed by professional mechanical tooth cleaning
in combination with tooth brushing instruction. On the other hand, gingivitis becomes
increasingly prevalent with age through the adolescent period, and early diagnosis and
appropriate interventions are necessary to prevent the onset of marginal periodontitis during
adolescence. Since most children with periodontitis possess a background of abnormal
immune responses, they have a lower likelihood of good prognosis,even though diligent
interventions are performed. Other types of periodontal diseases include gingival recession,
Sho L. Yamamoto
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which is mainly caused by traumatic occlusion, and gingival overgrowth, which has a
hereditary
background
and
is
associated
with
specific
medication
such
as
antiepilepticphenytoin. In addition, cases with a rapid loss of gingival attachment and alveolar
bone due to mechanical injury at the periodontal sulcus, termed ―acute periodontitis,‖ are also
encountered. Furthermore, an unintentional attachment loss, when materials such as small
plastic tubes being fitted to the teeth are inserted, is a unique type of periodontitis in young
children. It should be noted that periodontitis associated with anatomical anomalies, which
are derived from fragile periodontal attachment, is also encountered.
Considering the etiology of periodontitis, it is important to identify periodontitis-related
bacterial species, since the disease is generally known to be caused by specific bacteria.
However, most of those belong to the obligate anaerobic group, and it is difficult and time-
consuming to isolate them. On the other hand, recent developments in molecular biological
techniques have enabled rapid identification of species using bacterial DNA extracted from
various kinds of clinical specimens. Such approaches do not require isolation of viable
bacteria and even small amounts of DNA can be detected using PCR techniques. With such
modern techniques, the author have evaluated the distribution of periodontal bacterial species
in children, changes of species in the same subjects over a long interval, combinations of
species simultaneously detected, and mother-to-child transmission. In addition, the
distributions of bacterial species in children with Down‘s syndrome and other developmental
disabilities have been analyzed. The authors‘ results have provided valuable information
regarding bacterial profiles in clinical specimens, which should lead to further beneficial
methods for clinical use in the near future.
Chapter III - In advanced perioprosthetic cases where the periodontium‘s integrity is
severely compromised and the dental barrier‘s function is extremely disrupted, the
biomechanical response to the extrinsic mechanical stimuli of the system including the
prosthetic restoration supported by the biological tissues is quite altered. The differentiated
altered experience of the functional loading due to the lowered periodontium‘s threshold
along with the apical shift of the system fulcrum due to the periodontium‘s structure reduction
require a modified design of the restoration‘s metal framework as a critical factor in the
system‘s survival in order to secure the expected longevity of both the restorative and
biological structures, capturing the failure initiation of either progressive tissular or technical
collapse. So, the purpose of the present study was to: a. analyze the way by which the
periodontium reacts to the developing forces and how its integrity is related to the experience
of the stress field on the perioprosthetic patient; b. determine the parameters defining the
tooth prognosis in the perioprosthetic patient and how the restoration type is involved; c.
report the clinical significance of tooth splinting by cantilever cross arch fixed partial denture
applied on the perioprosthetic patient and the way it is related to the response of the reduced
periodontium and finally d. investigate the clinical significance of the specific design of the
metal framework in cantilever cross-arch fixed partial dentures via a theoretical finite element
model.
Chapter IV - Periodontal disease is a chronic bacterial infection characterised by
persistent inflammation, connective tissue breakdown and alveolar bone destruction. The
chronic inflammation associated with periodontal disease represents the host response to
bacterial plaque, mediated by the environment in which the response occurs. Periodontitis is
both site-specific and episodic in nature and thus biomarker development could prove
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invaluable in identifying sites with active disease, predicting sites that may develop disease,
monitoring response to therapy or identifying patients with enhanced disease susceptibility.
In periodontal disease gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) flows from the gingival
microcirculation into the periodontal pockets and the volume increases in proportion to the
severity of the local inflammatory process. The study of GCF samples, from defined sites of
chronic periodontal inflammation, allows non-invasive access to an inflammatory exudate
that could be used for biomarker discovery. GCF contains proteins synthesised and secreted
in the inflamed gingival tissues and carried by the GCF to the gingival crevice/pocket. Here,
they are augmented by proteins released from bacteria and host cells, particularly
polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs), present in the periodontal pocket. The constituents of
GCF are therefore derived from a number of sources including microbial plaque, host
inflammatory cells, serum and tissue breakdown products. Saliva has also been studied in the
search for biomarkers of periodontal disease. Saliva is a more complex fluid, comprising
glandular secretions, components of GCF, components of serum and also particles (including
bacteria) from a variety of oral and airway sources. Although saliva has the advantage of
being easily collected, its biochemical complexity may hinder detection of biomarkers
specific for periodontal disease. Furthermore the fact that saliva bathes the whole mouth
negates the use of salivary biomarkers for site-specific identification or monitoring of
periodontal disease.
Despite an impressive list of possibilities, biomarkers have yet to reach routine clinical
use as reasonable predictors of periodontal status. This chapter reviews the analysis of GCF
and saliva for monitoring periodontal health and disease. Potentially important biomarkers of
disease in both GCF and saliva are highlighted and their merits are described in further detail.
Putative biomarkers from both host and bacterial sources are considered and the use of
multiple biomarkers is discussed. Following the technological revolution in both genomic and
proteomic analysis over the last decade it is tempting to speculate that the next decade could
bring much waited progress in the field of biomarker identification and application in the field
of periodontal disease.
Chapter V - Periodontal disease represents today the main cause of teeth loss after the
third decade of life. About 60% of dental extractions are due to etiopathogenetic periodontal
factors. After 35 years, the frequency of marginal periodontal disease varies from 80% to
100% of world population, depending on statistical method used and the demographic areas
considered, showing a similar frequency in both sexes, slightly higher in female.
Two important and interrelated factors are involved in its physiopathological progression:
1) the activation of immune system and the release of inflammatory mediators, such as IL-1β,
IL-6 and TNF-α, which could overflow into the blood system and induce a systemic
inflammatory response; 2) the production of oxygen radicals and their related metabolites.
A recent focus of the dental research is the individuation of biomarkers, which can be
easily used as diagnostic tools. Among them, metalloproteinases (MMPs) and heat shock
proteins (HSPs) could provide potential biomarkers, which could be useful for evaluating
both the periodontitis development and the incidence of the related cardiovascular diseases.
Recent studies, in fact, have shown a direct correlation between periodontal and
cardiovascular diseases: in particular, both diseases have systemic and local causes, and the
constant bacterial contamination of oral cavity could be linked not only to periodontopathy
but also to the development of cardiovascular diseases.
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To date, the periodontal disease therapy available is based on the individuation and the
elimination of the causing factors. Nevertheless, new innovative surgical and pharmacological
therapies could be developed.
The aim of this work is to review the literature data focusing on the role of inflammatory
mediators and oxidative stress in periodontal disease and related factors.
Chapter VI - Periodontal disease results from complex interactions between infectious
agents and host factors. The disease expression can be modified by environmental, acquired,
and genetic risk factors. Tobacco usage, especially smoking, is considered a major modifiable
risk factor for periodontal disease. In addition to periodontal disease, tobacco usage is also a
risk factor for oral cancer and its recurrence, dental cariesand congenital defects in children
from mothers who smoke while pregnant. In periodontal disease, smokers have deeper
probing depths, more gingival recession, more alveolar loss and more furcation involvement
than non-smokers. They also show less favorable responses to various kinds of periodontal
treatments including non-surgical, surgical, regenerative procedures and dental implants. It is
clear from epidemiology studies that tobacco usage is correlated with periodontal disease.
This chapter reviews the evidence for the association between periodontal disease and
tobacco, and describes what is currently known about how tobacco and its components affect
the periodontal tissues that result in tissue damage.
Chapter VII - A topical issue in periodontology is to find objective diagnostic methods
which may be combined with the classical clinical inspection parameters to yield a reliable
grading of the severity and extent of periodontal disease. This study deals with a novel
cytodiagnostic fluorescence test, performed on exfoliation samples taken from
periodontal/oral tissues, useful to assess the severity of periodontal disease. Twenty-one
patients with different degrees of periodontitis were subjected to clinical and
histopathological grading and the results compared with those obtained from the
cytodiagnostic fluorescence assay. The author found that the amount of blood cells
(polymorphonuclear and mononuclear leukocytes, erythrocytes), the occurrence of
morphologically abnormal epithelial cells, and the number of spirochetes showed a
statistically significant correlation with the clinical and histopathological diagnostic
parameters, the latter being considered as the most reliable predictors of the severity of
periodontal disease. On these grounds, the author suggest that this cytodiagnostic method
may greatly help dental practitioners to achieve a chair-side, reliable and objective evaluation
of the degree and activity of periodontitis at first dental visit, and to perform a targeted
treatment and an accurate follow up of the patients during supportive periodontal therapy.
Chapter VIII -Differentiation of health from disease is central to understanding diagnosis
and treatment of periodontal diseases. It is logical to begin with an in-depth examination of
the structure and physiology of the healthy periodontium.
Chapter IX - Objectives: The purpose of this study was to compare the short-term clinical
effects of a single intrasulcular injection of 2% chlorhexidine gluconate gel (CG) and placebo
gel (PG) in orthodontic patients with fixed appliances and established gingivitis aged from 12
to 20 years.
Methods and Materials: 50 patients (31 females, 19 males) were divided into two groups
(CG and PG) of 50 subjects. This study was single blind randomized split mouth clinical trial.
As randomly assigned by coin toss, the first permanent molars on the right or left side of the
mouth received either CG or PG. Probing depth (PD) was measured with a Michigan 0 probe.
The gingival index (GI) of Löe and SILNESS and papilla bleeding index (PBI) of
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MÜHLEMANN were recorded on the first permanent molars. These indices were measured
at baseline, and in treatment on second, fourth, eighth, and the twelfth weeks. T-test and chi-
square test were used to analyze the data.
Results: T-test showed that PD was reduced in experimental group in comparison with
the control group in the 4th week and following intervals (p<0.001). Chi-square showed that
PBI was improved in experimental group in comparison with the control group in the 2nd
week and following intervals (p<0.001). The same test showed that GI was improved in
experimental group in the 2nd week and following intervals (p<0.001).
Conclusion: The data indicate that the use of a single application of 2% CG was effective
in reducing gingivitis related to banded first permanent premolars in adolescents undergoing
orthodontic treatment in short time.
Chapter X - The focal infection theory, which for almost half a century justified
indiscriminate extraction of teeth to cure focal infections, since the end of the 1940s has
become progressively a discarded concept. In parallel with the declining importance assigned
to pulp and periapical infections in the pathogenesis of focal diseases, over the last decade
there has been increasing interest in the possible relationship between periodontal infection
and systemic diseases. Periodontal pathogens and their products, as well as inflammatory
mediators produced in gingival tissue, might enter the bloodstream through ulcerated pocket
epithelium, causing systemic effects (focal diseases).
On the basis of this mechanism, chronic periodontitis has been implicated as risk factor
for cardiovascular diseases associated to atherosclerosis, bacterial endocarditis, diabetes
mellitus, respiratory disease preterm delivery, rheumatoid arthritis, and more recently
osteoporosis, pancreatic cancer, metabolic syndrome, renal diseases and neurodegenerative
diseases such as Alzheimer‘s disease. Numerous hypotheses, including common
susceptibility, systemic inflammation, direct bacterial infection and cross-reactivity, or
molecular mimicry, between bacterial antigens and self-antigens, have been postulated to
explain these relationships. In this context, the association of periodontal disease with
systemic diseases has introduced the concept of ―periodontal medicine‖, which ultimately
guides the medical community in therapeutic approaches to improve not only the patient oral
health but also systemic health.
This chapter summarizes the pathophysiology of periodontal disease and presentsan
update on interrelationships and interactions between periodontal disease and systemic
diseases. Moreover, this chapter reviews the published literature that describes the effects of
periodontal treatment on cardiovascular diseases, adverse pregnancy outcomes, diabetes
mellitus, and respiratory disease.
Chapter XI - Obesity, diabetes and oral diseases (dental cariesand periodontal diseases),
largely preventable chronic diseases, are described as global pandemic due their distribution
and severe consequences. WHO has called for a global action for prevention and promotion
of these diseases as a vital investment in urgent need.
Diabetes and obesity, showing an increasing trend, lead to disabilities and negatively
impacts on the quality of life through life course along with oral diseases. WHO projects that
the prevalence of diabetes and deaths/year attrituble to diabetes complications will double
worldwide by 2030. Globally, more than 1 billion adults are overweight; almost 300 million
of them are clinically obese. Being obese/overweight raises steeply the likelihood of
developing DM2. Approximately 85% of people with diabetes are DM2, and of these 90% are
obese or overweight. Obesity increases the likelihood of periodontitis which is one of the
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most common chronic diseases worldwide, described as pandemic, and closely related to
DM2. Promoting good oral health is significantly essential for prevention and reducing the
negative consequences of periodontal diseases, DM2 and obesity, and to maintain good
health, as proposed by European health goals by WHO.
Chapter XII - Periodontitis is one of the predominant polymicrobial infections of humans.
Since periodontitis results from complex interactions of multiple microorganisms, it is
important to investigate interactions between different periodontal bacteria and host cells.
Porphyromonas gingivalis, a gram-negative anaerobe, is a major colonizer of gingival tissues
and has been etiologically implicated in periodontal as well as cardiovascular diseases.
Cellular invasion by periodontal pathogens including P. gingivalis has been proposed as a
possible virulence factor, affording protection from the host immune responses and
contributing to tissue damage. In recent periodontal research, polymicrobial infection models
have been used to study host response profiles. However, data on the potential of host cell
invasion by periodontal pathogens in polymicrobial infection are scarce. The author
investigated the ability of periodontal pathogens to modulate invasion of human gingival
epithelial cells and aortic endothelial cells by P. gingivalis. Among the pathogens,
Fusobacterium nucleatum was shown to significantly enhance the P. gingivalis invasion. The
author describe the complex interaction between periodontopathogens and host cells, with a
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