3
commissioner in Italy.
8
And, to ensure personal and political stability between the
two great generals, Pompey gladly accepted Caesar’s offer for his daughter’s hand in
marriage. Pompey would rule Rome for most of the decade. He had more military
influence than Crassus, Caesar was in Gaul, and his tribunes and allies controlled the
provincial armies and the Mediterranean.
9
These events gave Pompey a renewed feeling of personal and political confi-
dence within the senatorial establishment.
10
Success was once again on his side. There
would be another noteworthy event which would spark his desire to build a perma-
nent theatre and therefore gain further popularity. Pompey’s decision was in re-
sponse to the critical views of the Roman people who were unsympathetic towards
the political issues he was involved in and to gain back the favour of the masses he
determined to build this monument devoted to entertainment.
11
Cicero perceived the
popular politicians of the triumvirate as the instigators of a grave political crisis.
Pompey’s level of unpopularity among the masses was observed by Cicero at the
games of Apollo in July 59. He remarked that the sentiments of the people were very
clearly ascertained in the theatre and at public shows where both Pompey and his
advisors were maligned with hisses and verbal insults (Att. 2.19). There were even
rumours of a plot to murder him. This personal abuse vented at the games persuaded
Pompey to search for some form of additional popularity among the masses. In reac-
tion to this negative sentiment he made the decision to build Rome’s first permanent
stone theatre. He had the power and auctoritas to do so and nobody could oppose
him.
12
After celebrating his third triumph in 61, Pompey already thought about a plan
to build some type of permanent monument to honour his achievements. The idea
arose from two noteworthy events: first he was so impressed by the theatre at
Mytilene that he had sketches of it made and planned to build one like it in Rome,
only larger and more splendid (Plut. Pomp. 42.4). Second, he received the privilege of
wearing a gold wreath and embroidered toga at all theatrical performances, having
endorsed the Roman tradition which linked politicians and the theatre.
13
As construction continued in 58, Caesar departed for Gaul on a campaign
which would last almost ten years. Instigated by M. Porcius Cato’s remark that
Pompey was „a dictator in all but name,” Clodius’ gangs began a series of humiliating
verbal attacks upon Pompey and spread rumours of another assassination attempt.
14
Faction fights and riots continued into 57 between Milo and Clodius.
Both factions expressed their opinion not only in the streets but also at public
8
Suet. Iul. 19, 21, 54.3; App. B. Civ. 2.2.13, Mith. 114; Plut. Pomp. 48.3; Cass. Dio 38.7.5; Cic. Att. 8.3.3, 2.5.1,
2.16.2. Scullard 1982: 115.
9
Syme 1939: 35.
10
Rawson 1978: 106, „There is much to suggest that Pompey was active and feeling fulfilled in at least the
first half of 59.”
11
Frézouls 1983: 204.
12
Plut. Pomp. 45.5; Vell. Pat. 2.40.3–4; Manil. Astron. 1.793; Plin. HN 37.6.14; Cass. Dio 37.21.
13
Since the beginning of the republic civil magistrates built temporary wooden theatres in an open area
close to a temple during the annual
ludi celebrations. Triumphant generals would do the same as part of
their triumphal celebrations; App. B. Civ. 1.28.125; Cic. Har. resp. 12.24; Liv. 34.44.5, 34.54.4, 34.54.6–8,
41.27.5–9, 45.43.1, 48, 51, 52, 59; Plin. HN 33.52.148–149, 34.16.36, 35.8.24, 37.6.12; Tac. Ann. 14.21; Val.
Max. 2.4.2; Vell. Pat. 1.13.4–5, 1.15.3.
14
For Pompey and Cicero harassed by Clodius, see: Cic. Dom. 67 and 129, Sest. 69, Har. resp. 49, Pis. 28–29,
Red.
sen. 4; for Cato’s remark, see Cic.
Q.
Fr. 1.2.15.
4
theatrical events. During the games in honour of Apollo in July 57 a remarkable
demonstration of the political potential inherent in theatrical occasions occurred in
favour of the exiled Cicero.
15
Romans from all classes demonstrated unequivocal
public support for the popular orator. At the theatrical shows in the Campus Martius
unanimous applause was given to senators and consuls for the decrees passed in
favour of Cicero’s return to Rome. Clodius had been the only official to oppose the
resolutions and when he arrived at the theatre the audience shouted, cursed and
made rude gestures at him.
16
The longing for Cicero’s return from exile was so fierce
that plays were performed in his honour and actors hinted to the senators in the
audience that they had erred by banning him from the city. In addition, each time
there was an allusion to Cicero in a play the audience applauded enthusiastically for
the return of this popular, noble and worthy Roman citizen (Cicero Sest. 56.121–57.122,
58.123).
17
As Cicero reflected upon these events after his return to Rome he extolled the
importance of the games as an opportunity for the expression and observation of
public opinion. He was probably even dramatically pointing towards the direction of
Pompey’s permanent stone theatre under construction when he emphasized that „the
opinion and will of the Roman people concerning public matters can be most effec-
tually shown in three places: at a meeting, at an assembly, and at a gathering for
plays” (Sest. 50.106). Pompey certainly noticed the importance of these public
demonstrations and their weight in the city’s affairs. His objective would be to further
his popularity by gaining the support of the theatre crowds.
18
In September 57 Pompey was appointed commissioner of the grain supply. He
also received proconsular imperium and fifteen legates to take care of his provincial
duties. Essentially, the office allowed him to remain in Rome for five years and he
could supervise the completion of his theatre without any interruption of having to go
abroad for military campaigns. The administrative office of grain commissioner might
have in fact given Pompey the idea to enhance his theatre by adding a quadriportico
which extended toward the Porticus Minucia Frumentaria. The two porticos would be
closely associated with one another as victory monuments and some spaces within
them served as minor locations for the distribution of grain and other commercial
activities.
19
15
Beacham 1991: 159. The events of 57 are explained by Cicero Sest. 50.106–59.127.
16
During the performance of the comedy Simulans the actors looked straight at Clodius in disapproval
and chanted in a mocking tone: „For this, Titus, the end of your vicious life is in front of you” (Cic.
Sest.
55.118).
17
Passages from Accius’ tragedy Eurysaces, read by the famous tragic actor Aesopus, expressed the grief
of the people toward Cicero: „who will have helped the republic with a firm spirit?....Our most distin-
guished friend in our most important battle.” The audience knew these lines referred to Cicero and
applauded wildly. Their longing was great for the man „endowed with greatest genius.” Aesopus also
interpolated lines from the Andromache of Ennius: „You allow him to be banished, you cause him to be
driven away, you suffer now that he has been exiled.” He hinted to the Senate, Equites, and Roman
people that they had erred by banning Cicero from the city; see Cic. Sest. 56.121–57.122. The longing for
Cicero’s return from exile was so fierce that he was even mentioned by name during the performance of
the play Brutus – the line „Tullius, who had established freedom for the citizens,” was encored many
times over as the audience applauded enthusiastically; see Cic. Sest. 58.123. Seager 1982: 328–338.
18
Frézouls 1983: 203–204.
19
Marcus Minucius Rufus, consul in 110 and proconsul in Macedonia, won major victories, held a
triumph in 106 and built the Porticus Minucia as his victory monument. It became the main distribution