Training manual } war department
(7) The Government of the United States is not a democracy but a Republic
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| (7) The Government of the United States is not a democracy but a Republic.
QUESTIONNAIRE At the time of the adoption of the Constitution what was the usual form of world government? What was the principal distinction between "government of laws" and "government of men"? What were the sources of the American Constitution? What led the colonists to leave Europe and come to America? Describe the doctrine of paternalism. Is the paternalistic form of government efficient? Define the true purpose of government. Why is a correct understanding of the purposes of government necessary? What is the Preamble to the Constitution? Quote it. What is the source and final authority of government? What is the meaning of "consent of the governed"? How did the "Union" under the Constitution differ from that under the Articles of Confederation? Does "dual capacity" of citizenship affect loyalty to the Nation? How does the Constitution assure "justice" to the individual citizen? How can "domestic tranquillity" become possible in a nation composed of all races? Who provides for the "common defense" of the Nation? How? What is meant by "general welfare"? What "blessings of liberty" are secured by our Constitution? In general what is the American philosophy of government? SECTION IX LESSON 9. — REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT Paragraph Early forms of government ------------------------------------------- 118 Representative government ------------------------------------------- 119 The American experiment. Comparative analysis -------------------------------------------------- 120 Autocracy. Democracy. Republic. Superior to all others -------------------------------------------------- 121 No direct action -------------------------------------------------------- 122 Methods of representative government ------------------------------ 123 An unwritten constitution. A written constitution. Consent of the governed ---------------------------------------------- 124 "American Bill of Rights" --------------------------------------------- 125 Enumeration of constitutional rights --------------------------------- 126 Government by representation ---------------------------------------- 127 Compromises ----------------------------------------------------------- 128 Separation of powers -------------------------------------------------- 129 Checks and balances --------------------------------------------------- 130 Federal judiciary -------------------------------------------------------- 131 Delegated national powers --------------------------------------------- 132 Powers reserved to state and people ---------------------------------- 133 Dangers to representative government ------------------------------- 134 Centralization. Sectional and class legislation. Multiplicity of laws. Socialism, communism, anarchy. Ignorance of citizens. Safeguards -------------------------------------------------------------- 135 Direct responsibility to the people. Restricted immigration. Knowledge concerning the Constitution. 118. Early forms of government. — Until the eighteenth century the world had little experience with republics. In the ancient world Greece and Rome furnished early examples of attempts to form democratic governments. In Grecian cities popular government was practiced, the free people directly making the laws. In Rome the townsman passed laws to his own advantage. And in the so-called Venetian republic the power was vested in a few nobles. After the failure of many experiments in free government the ancient world turned to monarchy, believing that the people were unfit to govern themselves. For centuries, political revolutions were struggles for better government, rather than self-government. At the time of the Revolutionary War the republican form of government was discredited throughout the world, monarchy and oligarchy being considered the proper forms of good government. 119. Representative government. — The American experiment. — A few races qualified themselves for self-government. To establish that form of government was a long, hard struggle which culminated in the great American experiment. The United States set up a distinct and different form of government, the product of distinct racial stocks and centuries spent in learning the principles and art of self-government. In practice, our form of government is the most nearly perfect in securing individual rights and ensuring the blessings of liberty. It differs from previous forms in certain vital and fundamental principles which have come to be known as "American institutions." Among these is that of self-government by representation, which is "the golden mean between autocracy and democracy." 120. Comparative analysis. — The following comparative analysis shows the principal characteristics of the three forms of government:
Authority is derived through heredity. People have no choice in the selection of their rulers and no voice in making of the laws. Results in arbitrariness, tyranny, and oppression. Attitude toward property is feudalistic. Attitude toward law is that the will of the ruler shall control, regardless of reason or consequences. Democracy: A government of the masses. Authority derived through mass meeting or any other form of "direct" expression. Results in mobocracy. Attitude toward property is communistic — negating property rights. Attitude toward law is that the will of the majority shall regulate, whether it be based upon deliberation or governed by passion, prejudice, and impulse, without restraint or regard to consequences. Results in demagogism, license, agitation, discontent, anarchy. Republic: Authority is derived through the election by the people of public officials best fitted to represent them. Attitude toward property is respect for laws and individual rights, and a sensible economic procedure. Attitude toward law is the administration of justice in accord with fixed principles and established evidence, with a strict regard to consequences. A greater number of citizens and extent of territory may be brought within its compass. Avoids the dangerous extreme of either tyranny or mobocracy. Results in statesmanship, liberty, reason, justice, contentment, and progress. Is the "standard form" of government throughout the world. A republic is a form of government under a constitution which provides for the election of (1) an executive and (2) a legislative body, who working together in a representative capacity, have all the power of appointment, all power of legislation, all power to raise revenue and appropriate expenditures, and are required to create (3) a judiciary to pass upon the justice and legality of their governmental acts and to recognize (4) certain inherent individual rights. Take away any one or more of those four elements and you are drifting into autocracy. Add one or more to those four elements and you are drifting into democracy. — Atwood. 121. Superior to all others. — Autocracy declares the divine right of kings; its authority can not be questioned; its powers are arbitrarily or unjustly administered. Democracy is the "direct" rule of the people and has been repeatedly tried without success. Our Constitutional fathers, familiar with the strength and weakness of both autocracy and democracy, with fixed principles definitely in mind, defined a representative republican form of government. They "made a very marked distinction between a republic and a democracy * * * and said repeatedly and emphatically that they had founded a republic." Madison, in the Federalist, emphasized the fact that this government was a republic and not a democracy, the Constitution makers having considered both an autocracy and a democracy as undesirable forms of government while "a republic * * * promises the cure for which we are seeking." In a democracy the people meet and exercise the government in person. In a republic they assemble and administer it by their respective agents. — Madison. The advantage which a republic has over a democracy consists in the substitution of representatives whose enlightened views and virtuous sentiments render them superior to local prejudices and to schemes of injustice. — Madison. The American form of government is the oldest republican form of government in the world, and is exercising a pronounced influence in modifying the governments of other nations. Our Constitution has been copied in whole or in part throughout the earth. 122. No direct action. — Under the representative form of government there is no place for "direct action." The inherent characteristic of a republic is government by representation. The people are permitted to do only two things; they may vote once every four years for the executive and once in two years for members of the legislative body. 123. Methods of representative government. — Constitutional government may be set up under either a written or an unwritten Constitution.
The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided * * * that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. — Constitution, Article V. Since the adoption of the Constitution our Nation has increased in population from 3,000,000 to more than 125,000,000 and has developed from a wilderness to the greatest industrial nation in the world. The adequacy of our Constitution is evidenced by the adoption of only 19 amendments to modify the principles set forth in the original document.
124. Consent of the governed. — The original desire of the colonists was "only to hare a voice" in the affairs of the Government. Governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed * * *. We have petitioned for Redress in the most bumble terras: Our repented Petitions have been answered only by repeated tyranny. — Declaration of Independence. The situation so developed that the colonists totally dissolved "all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain," and established a new form of government based upon the "consent of the governed." "Consent" in the drafting and approval of the instrument of government and its subsequent amendment was a new feature. 125. "American Bill of Rights." — When the Constitutional Convention was drawing to a close several members who opposed the adoption of the Constitution suggested a number of amendments, which, they declared, "would make the Constitution acceptable to them." While the Constitution already contained many provisions for the protection of the rights of the individual citizen, various States desired that it contain further written stipulations that would remove every possibility of doubt and prevent disputes by "leaving no matters to inference, implication, or construction." It was contended that the provision of the suggested Bill of Rights contained "various exceptions not granted * * *. Why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do?" The tyranny of legislature is a most formidable dread at present, and will be for many years. That of the Executive will come in its time, but it will be at a remote period. — Madison. Subsequently, many of these features were incorporated in the first 10 amendments, adopted in 1791 as supplements to the Constitution, and are called the "American Bill of Rights." The first 10 amendments embodied "guaranties and immunities which are inherited from our English ancestors." — Supreme Court (1897). 126. Enumeration of constitutional rights. — Individual rights formally guarded by original constitutional provisions: No ex-post facto laws. No bill of attainder. No suspension of privileges of habeas corpus. Trial by jury and at places where the crimes were committed. Definition of treason and limiting punishment. Guaranty of immunity and privileges of all States to the citizens of each State. No religious test before admission to public office. To which the Bill of Rights added: Right of peaceable assembly and petition to the Government for redress of grievances. Freedom of religion, speech, and press. Right of the people to keep and bear arms — militia. Quartering of soldiers only as provided by law. Protection against unreasonable searches. Right of accused to indictment by grand jury with certain exceptions. No compulsory testimony against self. No deprivation of rights without due process of law. No confiscation of private property for public use without just compensation. Right of a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury. Right to demand information concerning the nature and cause of accusation. To be confronted with witnesses against him. Compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor. Have assistance of counsel for defense. Right of trial by jury in suits of common law where value and controversy shall exceed $20. Protection of verdict of said jury. No excessive bail required. No imposition of excessive fines. No infliction of cruel and unusual punishment. Rights retained by the people shall not be denied nor disparaged. Powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution nor prohibited by it to the States are reserved to the States or to the people. 127. Government by representation. — The framers of the Constitution were opposed to direct government. The remedy sought was to be found in representative government. Madison declared that the object to which their efforts wore to be directed was how to prevent a majority rule and to preserve the spirit and form of popular government. The representative form of government was their answer. The United States shall guarantee to every State in the Union a republican form of government. — Constitution, Article IV, Sect. 4 Sovereignty was placed in the hands of the people. No authority was delegated to any department either of National or State Government except by the people through the provisions contained in the Constitution. There could be no question but that by a republican form of government was intended a government in which not only would the people's representatives make laws and the agents administer them, but the people would also directly or indirectly choose the Executive. — Cooley. 128. Compromises. — In the establishment of our dual form of government a spirit of compromise prevailed. The instrument offered by the makers of the Constitution was the result of compromise, especially in regard to the matter of representation; the smaller States demanded equal representation with the larger. The compromise established two Houses of Congress: the Senate, in which each State was given equal representation; the House of Representatives, in which the membership was apportioned to the population. The functions of the two Houses of Congress were specifically stated and their powers definitely limited. 129. Separation of powers. — Members of the convention of 1787 feared the oppression of highly concentrated power, whether on the part of an individual or the ascendency of a parliamentary majority. Any suggested scheme to be satisfactory must limit the power of government rather than expand it. Their plan of government provided for the division of power into three departments: A legislative body working together in a representative capacity having power of appointment, power of legislation, power to raise revenues, power to appropriate funds for public expenditure. An executive department whose duty was law enforcement and administration of the departments. A judicial or law-interpreting department, at the head of which stands the Supreme Court. 130. Checks and balances. — These departments were separated from each other as far as possible, cooperating when necessary. Checks were placed upon each, preventing anyone from becoming absolute or despotic. They wore likewise balanced against each other in such a manner as to preserve the equilibrium of government : States are balanced against the Central Government; House of Representatives is balanced against the Senate; Senate is balanced against the House of Representatives; executive authority is balanced by the legislative; legislative department is balanced by the executive; judiciary is balanced against the legislative, executive, and State governments; Senate is balanced against the President in all appointment to offices and all treaties; people hold a balance against their own representatives through periodical elections. Among the curbs and restrictions on the powers of the Central Government, the strongest checks are: Establishment of a smaller legislative body with less changing personnel and longer terms based on equality of representation, having coordinate legislative authority, with the exception of revenue bills, which originate in the House of Representatives, and treaties and appointments, which are committed to the President and the Senate; the public sentiment of an intelligent and conservative people; popular elections; short terms of office. 131. Federal judiciary. — To accomplish the uniform interpretation of the Constitution a Federal court system was necessary, and it was provided that the judges should be appointed by the President, "with the advice and consent of the Senate." Through the system of checks and balances the safeguarding of the Constitution is charged to the Supreme Court. However, every judge in the land is also bound, under oath or affirmation, to support it and declare void any enactment which violates its provisions. When a State court fails to fulfill this obligation "its action is reviewable and reversible by the Supreme Court of the United States." This system which makes the judges the guardians of the Constitution provides the only safeguard which has hitherto been invented against unconstitutional legislation. — Dicey. The courts keep each authority within its proper sphere, but they have the power to interfere only when a concrete case is brought before them for judicial consideration. One method of assault may be to effect in the form of the Constitution alterations which will impair the energy of the system and thus undermine what can not be directly overthrown. — Washington — Farewell Address. A Constitution may be undermined by the passing of laws which, without nominally changing its provisions, violate its principles. — Dicey. One of the exceptional features of our republican form of government is the independence of the Federal judiciary whose jurisdiction extends to all cases arising under the Constitution itself; cases arising under the Federal laws and treaties; cases affecting ambassadors, consuls, etc.; cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; cases in which the United States is a party; controversies between States; cases commenced by a State against the citizens of another State; controversies between the citizens of the same State under land grants from different States; cases between American citizens and foreign states, citizens or subjects. The balance of power has been preserved. The Constitution as a whole stands unshaken with but slight encroachments of one department upon the other. 132. Delegated national powers. — Under the plan set up under the Constitution certain definite powers are delegated to the three departments of government. Among the powers delegated to Congress are to — Levy taxes. Coin money. Pay national debts. Regulate commerce. Establish uniform naturalization laws. Establish the post office. Provide for the common defense. Declare war. Raise and support armies. Provide a navy. Among the limitations placed on the powers of Congress are — Apportionment of representation and direct taxes among the States is determined by population. No money can be paid except by law. All orders, resolutions, and bills must be sent to the President for his consideration. Privilege of habeas corpus shall not be suspended except in case of rebellion or insurrection. Among the powers delegated to the President are — Execute the laws. Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy. Commission all officers of the United States. Grant reprieves and pardons. Make treaties by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. Nominate judges of the Supreme Court. Give information to Congress in formal messages. Sign or veto orders, resolutions, and bills received from Congress. 133. Powers reserved to state and people — The President and Congress can exercise only those powers directly granted them by the Constitution. All powers not so delegated are reserved to the people. The enumeration of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. — Amendments to Constitution, Article IX. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution nor prohibited by it to the States are reserved to the States, respectively, or to the people. — Amendments to Constitution, Article X. 134. Dangers to representative government. — Whenever the republican form of government has not achieved success the difficulty has not been with the system but with its faulty application. Several dangerous experiments have been proposed, such as the initiative, referendum, recall, and the election of judges. Departures from constitutional principles threaten to impair the efficiency of our representative form of government, and if continued, will ultimately destroy it.
New and practical problems confront the Government, such as — increase of governmental business; rise of technical questions in government; popular demand for greater speed in Government action, and increased size and unwieldiness of legislative bodies. Opposition to centralization of power in the National Government rests upon the general dislike of concentrated power, and its destructive influence on our philosophy of government.
Socialism or communism which negates property rights; anarchy which negates law; the substitution of "direct action" for representative government; a government ownership — all should be avoided as perils that threaten the very foundation of this Republic. Ignorance of citizens. — Webster said, "On the diffusion of education among the people rests the preservation and perpetuity of our free institutions." In the early Colonies one of the first buildings to be erected was the schoolhouse. Here was laid, developed, and subsequently spread the ideals of liberty. One of the foundation stones of representative government is education. An intelligent and informed citizen is an asset to the Nation. The great educational system of America makes it possible for every citizen to best fit himself for the tasks of life. In the common schools all are taught a common language, a knowledge of American traditions, ideals, and philosophy of government. Through education the barrier that separates the citizen from the greater enjoyment of his freedom is removed, a better understanding of American ideals is established, and the influence of subversive propaganda is in large measure destroyed. 135. Safeguards. — In order to assure perpetuity to our form of government, certain safeguards are necessary against encroachments both from within and without. Direct responsibility to the people. — Having derived its "just powers from the consent of the governed," tho Government of the United States is directly responsible to the people as the highest authority. The United States is governed by public opinion — by the ideas and feelings of the people at large. The frequency of elections and the short terms of office give the people control. By reason of this our representatives are slow to attempt any official action overstepping the bounds of their authority or beyond the approval of their constituency. Restricted immigration. — Immigrants who enter the United States to exploit her resources without a thought of contributing a share to the general welfare are a menace to our country. Many seeking a haven of relief from the oppressions of poverty, ignorance, and restrictions, a place where gain is made easy and burdens made light, come in the spirit of the belief that America owes them a good living, security, and peace, without a thought of the price that has been paid to obtain these blessings or the cost of their maintenance. Against these America acclaims the fundamental right to close the door, for this is our home and we have the right to select whom we will to enjoy its privileges and bounties. America is basically made and refuses to any the right to alter the plans, destroy any part of the structure, or rebuild it to their liking. Knowledge concerning the Constitution. — For a proper appreciation of our Government the citizen should know what the Constitution is and what it contains. The selection and combination of these elements was a master achievement of vision, ability, and governmental genius on the part of the delegates to the convention. — Atwood. He should thoroughly understand the purposes of government as set forth in the Preamble to the Constitution; that the Constitution established a strictly representative form of government; and the general provisions in regard to amending the Constitution, when "necessary." All of this is essential to his proper "regard for the sterling worth of our beneficent heritage." The only antidote to the erroneous and dangerous ideas of government now rampant through the world and threatening America is a better understanding of the meaning, value, and importance of our American philosophy of government as set up in the Constitution. This will most effectively meet the propaganda of communism in its attack on our social, economic, political, and national institutions, which aims to destroy the family as the foundation of society, our system of capitalism which has produced the great economic success of America, our republican form of government, and our spirit of patriotism. The preservation of the sacred fire of liberty and the destiny of the republican model of government are justly considered as deeply, perhaps as finally, staked on the experiment entrusted to the hands of the American people. — Washington. If in our case the representative system ultimately fail, popular governments must be pronounced impossible. No combination of circumstances more favorable to the experiment can ever be expected to occur. The last hopes of mankind, therefore, lest with us; and if it should be proclaimed that our example had become an argument against the experiment, the knell of popular liberty would be sounded throughout the earth. — Webster. QUESTIONNAIRE Name three kinds of world governments. What is an autocracy? What are the principal characteristics of autocracy? What is a democracy? What are the principal characteristics of a democracy? What is a republic? What are the principal characteristics of a republic? Which form of government did the makers of the Constitution seek to establish? Name the methods of representative government. Describe them. What new feature of government was incorporated into the Constitution? Describe the "American Bill of Rights." What "individual rights" are formally guarded by the original Constitution? What "rights" were added by the first ten amendments? How was majority rule prevented and popular government preserved? How were the differences as to representation compromised by the framers of the Constitution? What is meant by "separation of powers"? Explain "checks and balances." Describe the Federal judiciary. Enumerate the national powers delegated to Congress. What limitations were placed on the powers of Congress? Name and define several dangers to representative government. Name and define the main safeguards of representative government. How does restricted immigration benefit — (1) The social life of America? (2) The economic life of America? (3) The political life of America?
SECTION X LESSON 10. — PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY Paragraph Responsibility of the present ------------------------------------------ 136 American civilization dynamic ---------------------------------------- 137 Individual responsibility ----------------------------------------------- 138 Education ---------------------------------------------------------------- 139 High standards ---------------------------------------------------------- 140 National character. Community and home. Importance of active citizenship -------------------------------------- 141 Vote.
Public service. Law and order. Public opinion ---------------------------------------------------------- 142 Responsibility can not be transferred --------------------------------- 143 Our example of individual responsibility ---------------------------- 144 136. Responsibility of the present. — Civilization is builded upon the experiences of the past. Any improvements that have been accomplished are the results of human achievement. No system of living has yet been devised that relieves the individual of his personal responsibility for the improvement of human society. By personal effort each individual should pass on to posterity a civilization better than he found. The sense of personal responsibility increases with the advancement of civilization. Not only have desires and wants multiplied, but with the advance of physical science there is also a quickened moral sentiment and spirit of philanthropic sympathy; an increasing recognition of the responsibility of each man for his fellow citizen. 137. American civilization dynamic. — American civilization is expressed in "power," the power of the individual citizen in the driving force of his initiative, adventurous spirit, self-reliance and dogged energy. To the American, life is a great adventure. Human wants, desires, ambitions, spur mankind to achievements. Never satisfied, ever progressing, civilization has constantly improved and with the improvement have come burdens and complexities which add more and more to the problems of human society. Through equality of opportunity America gives each individual citizen an equal chance, yet his ability, intelligence, and character distinguish and classify him as progress is made. When America was new, she called upon the racial stocks of the world to give their best. Out of these she has built a great nation. The intelligent, though uneducated foreigner, might have continued to live in his native land without the slightest mental awakening. Once landing upon American soil, he quickly catches the spirit of his new environment, takes advantage of the free institutions, and finds opportunity for development to his fullest capacity. In modern progress America leads the world. The American citizen, whether native or foreign born, must recognize his obligations and assume his responsibilities not only to America but also to the entire world. 138. Individual responsibility. — In the very nature of the organization and form of our Government, our free institutions, and the lack of all authority and order other than that created by the dictum of the people, the security and perpetuity of America rests upon the individual responsibility of her citizens. 139. Education. — It is the duty of every citizen to obtain the best possible education. To shirk this responsibility is to be unworthy of the "blessings of liberty" and untrue to his own best interest. Every new device, discovery of science, enlarged market, added production, facility of communication and transportation, carries with it a demand for an educated citizenry. Society, economics, local and foreign politics, add their demands for educated leadership and participation. Greater opportunities await the educated and fewer the uneducated with each passing year. It is the responsibility of every citizen to become fully informed, for through education is found the only sure means of perpetuating and improving our social structure. 140. High standards. — Civilization is not a circle but a pyramid. At its base is found the constantly increasing mass of humanity. Out of this common material the world has been busily engaged in building the structure of civilization. No one is compelled to remain at the base of the pyramid who has within himself the ability to find his way up. From that base have come most of the great men in history. Few born in riches or high social position have ever achieved greatness. By her system of Government America is at the mercy of those at the base of the pyramid. If through individual initiative and proper leadership they win their way toward the apex, they lift America also. If they remain inert, ignorant, indifferent, they become the common prey of unscrupulous leaders who seek to weaken or destroy the structure of our Government. National character. — National character is the sum of every citizen. The Nation has a right to expect each citizen to maintain high ideals, and he has a right to expect the same of his neighbor. The resulting measure of satisfaction should spur any right-thinking individual to such attainment. The actual worth of a citizen to himself, his community, his country, regardless of any other accomplishment, is based on the high quality and standard of his thinking. Obedience to higher impulses builds up self-respect without which no true success is possible. Community and home. — The United States has been developed by a succession of communities, independent of each other, yet closely related in their social, economic, and political interests. The character of the community is determined by the character of its homes and the character of its homes is determined by the character of the individual citizen. He is the only person upon whom responsibility for community and home can be placed. 141. Importance of active citizenship. — Good government is the particular responsibility of the individual citizen in whom final authority is vested. It will be no higher in its ideals nor just in its administration than the sum of our national character. The first and paramount duty of every citizen is to have a firsthand knowledge of the Constitution of the United States. He should learn the accurate, comprehensive, and masterly statement of the six principles of government as contained in the Preamble, and the plan for setting up and maintaining our representative form of government. It is in this document that individual rights and fundamental duties are set forth. American citizens are stockholders in a great corporation — the Government of the United States. They annually spend three and one-half billion dollars in the cost of government. One citizen out of 13 gainfully employed works for this corporation. Its operation requires understanding, supervision, and skillful management. The citizen is the governor of this Republic through the exercise of his right to vote — the most sacred right of a free people. He selects its rulers and decides its issues. The proper exercise of this right requires honesty and intelligence, and a knowledge concerning the dangerous tendencies that are threatening our republican form of government. He should weigh the merits of both men and issues, feeling himself responsible for the selection of proper persons as the representatives to whom are entrusted the affairs of government.
In 1928 more than 7.000.000 young citizens became eligible to vote for the first time. While the vote, and the whole vote, should be attracted to the polls, it must be remembered that an unintelligent vote safeguards nothing and is harmful in its effect. Public service. — Many citizens are so engrossed in their personal affairs that they are not willing to devote sufficient time to the business of government, leaving most important matters to be decided by a minority. The functions of citizenship are not confined to the enjoyment of personal rights — they also involve the protection of those rights. Unless the obligations of the individual citizen are fulfilled, our entire governmental structure, with all of its rights and privileges, is endangered. The indifference of individual citizens threatens the destruction of the "blessings of liberty." Opportunity for patriotic service calls for leadership and ability, and too many citizens fail to respond to this obligation. Every citizen should assist in the administration of law and justice by willingness to render jury service — nothing is more imperative. He should bear a proportionate part of the burden of taxation without an attempt at evasion. He should respect the rights of others both by precept and example. He should be willing to assume the duties of any public office to which his fellow citizens may call him. He should be useful and loyal, aiding in all public undertakings through a whole-hearted cooperation for the welfare of all. In every national emergency the people have produced their leader — George Washington, Abraham Lincoln. When diplomacy has failed, as in the World War, the people have "volunteered." Law and order. — The best government is that in which justice is most evenly administered. The better our Government, the more prosperous and contented the people. Every time the citizen assists the administration of justice he makes a material contribution to the welfare of all. Every citizen should observe and respect the law. It is no excuse that if a certain law interferes with his personal habits, desires, or beliefs he should disregard it. Absolute acquiescence in the decisions of the majority when legally expressed is the vital principle of republics. It is your personal responsibility not to contribute to the defeat of justice either by evading the law or consenting to its evasion by others. Statutory laws are presumed to be just and for the benefit of all law-abiding citizens. No greater responsibility rests upon the citizen than to demand just laws and their enforcement. There is nothing more degrading, more destructive in its effect upon personal honor and character, than evasion of law, bribery of officers, or contributing to the delinquency of others. Respect for its authority, compliance with its laws, acquiescence in its measures, are duties imposed by the fundamental maxims of true liberty. The basis of our political systems is the right of the people to make and alter their Constitution and Government. But the Constitution which at any time exists till changed by an explicit and authentic act of the whole people is sacredly obligatory upon all. The very idea of the power and the right of the people to establish government presupposes the duty of every individual to obey the established government. — George Washington — Farewell Address. The highest test of good citizenship is obedience to all laws. We can not develop and keep alive the high sense of civic duty and pride by half-hearted allegiance to the Constitution. There should be no such thing as an oath to support the Constitution with mental reservation. — W. B. Sicaney. The law of the State of Illinois provides that every male person above the age of 18 years must respond to the call of the police officer in securing and apprehending an offender, and provides a penalty for failure to do so. A good citizen will never hesitate to inform an officer of any criminal act of which he has knowledge and to assist in apprehending a criminal and aid the officer in his prosecution. Under the laws of Illinois a person who has knowledge of a crime and conceals it is also a criminal. 142. Public opinion. — Within each community there is an invisible, government which we call "public opinion." Without this force our courts and police would be powerless in their effort to control. Only in proportion as public opinion backs the law can it or will it be enforced. To protect the land from the overflow of our great rivers we erect dikes along their banks. The moment a "sand boil" appears behind a dike a crew is rushed to the place, and repairs are made to prevent a break that might bring disaster to thousands. Public opinion, expressing the true character of home and community, is the dike that protects America from the overflow of crime, immorality, irreligion, and injustice, which, if allowed to break through, will do an irreparable damage to the free institutions of America. Public opinion reaches an uncommonly high level because every citizen is called upon to express his own judgment in community and national affairs, and to work for the betterment of his town, county, State, and country. It is your personal responsibility to mold and control public opinion. 143. Responsibility can not be transferred. — "Responsibilities gravitate to the man who can shoulder them and power flows to the man who knows how." The recognition of the inequality of ability and the equality of moral obligation makes individual responsibility distasteful to the defective citizen. Efforts are being made to supplant the individual responsibility of American citizens with "State responsibility" which destroys self-respect, ambition, and national character. It demands "State control" which not only promises to relieve the citizen of his individual responsibility but it also deprives the individual citizen of his personal liberties. It is the duty of every American citizen to prevent the destruction of our Republic and individualistic form of government by any such destructive political philosophy. 144. Our example of individual responsibility. — The closing words of the Declaration of Independence reveal the seriousness with which the signers fulfilled their personal responsibility: "For the support of this Declaration with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor." QUESTIONNAIRE In what manner is the American civilization dynamic? Upon what does the security and perpetuity of America rest? In what way does education affect the responsibility of the American citizen? Is the Government of America at the mercy of the people? Explain. Upon what is national character based? What determines the character of the community and the home? What is the first obligation of an American citizen? Name several political responsibilities that test upon every citizen. What does the successful operation of our Government require? What two things are necessary for the preservation of our American institutions? To what degree have our citizens availed themselves of the right to vote? Are the functions of citizenship confined to the enjoyment of personal rights? Explain. How has personal responsibility in times of national emergency been met? Does personal responsibility require respect for and obedience to all of the provisions of the Constitution? What should be the attitude of the individual citizen in reference to the observance of the law? Of Federal laws? Of State laws? Of municipal ordinances? Why is public opinion of such a high standard? Can individual responsibility be transferred? Explain. What would be the effect of "State responsibility"? How seriously did the signers of the Declaration of Independence assume their personal responsibilities? SECTION XI LESSON 11. — SELF-PRESERVATION Paragraph Self-preservation the first law of nature ----------------------------- 145 Preservation of life and property ------------------------------------- 146 National defense the bulwark of self-preservation ------------------ 147 Freedom not a gift. Preservation of philosophy of government -------------------------- 148 Preparedness a necessity ----------------------------------------------- 149 America not militaristic ------------------------------------------------ 150 America not imperialistic ---------------------------------------------- 151 Destructive idealism ---------------------------------------------------- 152 Prepared leadership ---------------------------------------------------- 153 Military policy of the United States ----------------------------------- 154 The State Department -------------------------------------------------- 155 National defense act ---------------------------------------------------- 156 Regular Army. National Guard. Organized Reserves. Preparedness an agency for peace ------------------------------------ 157 Moral qualities essential to self-preservation ------------------------ 158 145. Self-preservation the first law of nature. — Possessed at first with a slight intelligence man's reliance was upon his physical powers; though brutal in quality, they were necessary for the preservation of life. By the successive steps of groups, tribes, and small states, mankind evolved better means of protection: cultivated intelligence; developed habits, customs, and laws, which in a measure abridged the need of physical force. 146. Preservation of life and property. — To insure the preservation of life and property America has written into her Constitution absolute guaranties. In no other country is life and property so hedged about with protective laws — all securing the inalienable rights of the individual citizen. The preservation of these rights is a dominant principle of the American philosophy of government. It limits that government, in writing, to certain definite powers, and the right is reserved to discharge any and all governmental servants who infringe upon the written will of the people. By the system of government set up by our Constitution the people have been able to regulate the agencies of government and control and direct corporations, capital, and labor. Mighty as is their power they must not infringe upon the rights of any private citizen. Neither must the individual citizen infringe upon the rights of another. Self-preservation for every citizen is guaranteed by the Constitution and guarded by the Supreme Court of the United States 147. National defense the bulwark of self-preservation. — That which preserves our rights has the right to be preserved. The Declaration of Independence was a "scrap of paper" until made immortal by tho blood and sacrifice of our patriotic ancestors. The sufferings of Valley Forge, the courage of Washington, the victory of Yorktown, secured American liberties and wrote this great document into the hearts of liberty-loving people. This colony (Massachusetts) is ready, at all times, to spend and be spent in the cause of America. — Warren — Message to Continental Congress. When the Constitution of the United States was adopted, with the exception of a small area along the Atlantic coast, America was a wilderness. She had a population of approximately 3.000,000 people. By the liberties granted and with unrestricted opportunity the colonials and pioneers conquered the wilderness, converting it into a land of fertile fields, great industries, and contented homes, an achievement of little more than 100 years. Freedom not a gift. — Freedom is not a gift. It has been bought and paid for in the sacrifices of peace and war. It is laid in long hours of toil, the swing of the ax in the forest, the campfire of the lonely pioneer, the sod house of the early settler, the community stockade and the frontier Army post. Freedom has traveled a long, hard road. None but the strong and courageous have possessed it and by none others can it be retained. 148. Preservation of philosophy of government. — Some interpret American liberty as the opportunity to exploit the Nation's resources and people by propaganda that aims to destroy American institutions. Under the guise of freedom of speech and press every possible effort is being made to undermine and destroy the blessings of liberty. The problem of national defense deals not only with the question of elements but it is also the question of the preservation of that philosophy of government devised by the founders of this Republic. 149. Preparedness a necessity. — With our growth of population, wealth, and standing among the nations, we have learned that
The security of the Nation has been endangered and lives unnecessarily sacrificed because of insufficient training and an inadequate number of trained officers and soldiers to give instruction or assume command. Wars have been begun which would never have been declared had America been prepared. Wars have been prolonged through lack of material and trained men to carry them rapidly forward to a successful issue. Hardships have been suffered by lack of supplies. Our lack of preparedness, with its rush of preparation, a personnel inadequately trained, lack of materiel or its means of manufacture, plus the immediate danger to national existence, not only created all the elements required for hasty and extravagant expenditures of money, but caused the criminal sacrifice of many of our best American citizens. The Preamble to the Constitution states that one reason for its establishment is "to provide for the common defense," assigning that duty to the Federal Government. The "people," through their representatives in Congress, declare war; the task of carrying on the struggle devolves on the Army and Navy. A million men springing to arms overnight would evidence patriotism; but an army of a million untrained patriots in this advanced day of scientific warfare means annihilation. 150. America not militaristic. — Our Government, from its inception, has opposed the idea of militarism. So determined were the colonials to prevent any possible military dominance they placed a positive check upon such control by making the constitutional provision that money for maintaining the Military Establishment could not be appropriated for a period longer than two years, thereby placing in the hands of each succeeding Congress the power to control through holding the purse strings of the Nation. Military training is not militaristic. On the contrary, it is greatly beneficial to the youth of America. It builds men physically, morally, and intellectually, and inculcates obedience, self-control, leadership, and loyalty. 151. America not imperialistic. — The United States has acquired a clear title to every square inch of land which has been added to that of the original thirteen Colonies. All territory annexed to the United States since 1803 has been acquired either by treaty or purchase, except Texas and Hawaii, which were admitted to the Union by their own request. In the latter instance, however, $200,000 was paid as a compensation to Liliuokalani. 152. Destructive idealism. — The attempt to undermine the Nation from within is more serious than the threat of armed force from without. An impractical and destructive idealism called internationalism is being propagated by certain foreign agitators and is being echoed and reechoed by many of the Nation's "intellectuals." Its efforts are to combat the spirit of patriotism, to destroy that spirit of nationalism without which no people can long endure. History teaches that in proportion as nations lose their sense of nationalism they become decadent. Having lost their sense of pride in the traditions of the past, their respect for national standards, their love for country, their spirit of patriotism — the end is near. Pacifism creates a spirit of compromise with the very factors which operate to weaken the American Government. It attempts to force the Government into poses of internationalism and false altruism, destructive of the real interests of the American people. Pacifism is baneful in its influence. It promotes distrust of country; debases the spirit of nationalism; is destructive of patriotism; undermines the policy of national defense; cooperates with destructive forces for the overthrow of national ideals and institutions. Experience has taught us that neither the pacific dispositions of the American people nor the pacific character of their political institutions can altogether exempt them from that strife which appears beyond the ordinary lot of nations to be incident to the actual pride of the world, and the same faithful monitor demonstrates that a certain degree of preparation for war is not only indispensable to avert disasters in (he onset, but affords also the best security for the continuance of peace. — Madison. 153. Prepared leadership. — Leadership is as difficult to develop in the Army as in business. The methods that insure success in one are applicable to the other. One of the aims of military training is to produce leaders. The more competent they become the higher the position they are sure to attain. So efficient is the training received by the officers in the Regular Army that many are invited to resign and accept positions of grave responsibility in the business world. In comparative measure efficiency in leadership is also developed in enlisted men, in students of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps, and in trainees of the citizens' military training camps. Business invariably gives preference to the young man who has had training in military leadership. Many industries provide their employees with 30 days' vacation on pay for the purpose of attendance at a summer training camp, knowing that they will return to their employment better equipped, better disciplined, and in every way much more valuable to themselves and their employers. All the wars of the future will include science and machinery. Trained men will be needed to efficiently use these materials, for efficient leadership, education, skill, technique, training, and thorough discipline are as necessary as loyalty and willingness to serve. 154. Military policy of the United States. — The military policy of the United States is defensive, not offensive. America will go to war only in defense of the Nation, and no other nation need maintain a ship or a soldier as protection against a war of aggression instituted by the United States. America desires no territory belonging to other peoples. She seeks only self-preservation and the privilege of self-determination in peace with all the nations of the earth. Safety from external danger is the most powerful dictation of national conduct. — Hamilton. The genius and character of our institutions are peaceful * * * and the power to declare war was not conferred upon Congress for the purposes of aggression or aggrandizement, but to enable the General Government to vindicate by arms, if it should become necessary, its own rights and the rights of its citizens. — United States Supreme Court. 165. The State Department. — By the means of arbitration and treaties the State Department endeavors to settle international disputes. It is only after such methods have failed that the United States enters into war to enforce or protect its principles. America has always endeavored to maintain peaceful relations with other nations. Yet practically every generation has been compelled to take up arms either in defense of the Nation or the principles set forth in her Constitution. The attitude of the American Government toward other nations is — To cherish peace and free intercourse with all nations having corresponding dispositions; to maintain sincere neutrality toward belligerent nations; to prefer in all cases amicable discussion and reasonable accommodation of differences to a decision of them by an appeal to arms; to exclude foreign intrigues and foreign partialities, so degrading to all countries and so baneful to free ones. — Madison. 166. National defense act. — The national defense act of 1920, amended to include March 4, 1927, provides: That the Army of the United States shall consist of the Regular Army, the National Guard while in the service of the United States, and the Organized Reserves, including the Officers' Reserve Corps and the Enlisted Reserve Corps. Except in time of war or similar emergency when the public safety demands it the number of enlisted men in the Regular Army shall not exceed 280,000, including the Philippine Scouts. The total authorized number of enlisted men, not including the Philippine Scouts, is at present fixed at 125,000. Regular Army. — The Regular Army consists of approximately 118,000 enlisted men and some 11,500 officers. A large part of this force is used for garrison purposes at home and abroad. Those at home spend about eight months of the year in their own training and in intensive preparation for the work required of them in summer training camps. The Regular Army also conducts the training of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps, the Organized Reserves, and the National Guard. Officers and men of the Regular Army are qualified to impart physical, mental, and moral training of the highest character. The very nature of their work makes them specialists in this field. No business or profession demands stronger character and ability. No group is more carefully disciplined, and nowhere will be found greater loyalty and honor. To train with and serve under the officers and enlisted men of the Regular Army is to be afforded an opportunity for personal betterment which any wide-nwake young American should be eager to accept. National Guard. — The second amendment to the Constitution provides that — A well-regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed. Prior to the national defense act of 1916 it was left to the States to provide an organized militia adequate in numbers, equipment and training to police the State in time of riot or insurrection; it was also to be used by the National Government in time of war with a foreign power. With the addition of a small standing Army the forces thus provided were presumed sufficient for national defense. Under the national defense act of 1920 the National Guard, in time of peace, is under the command of officers appointed by the governor of the State, but their training and administration is supervised by officers of the Regular Army assigned for that purpose. In time of war the National Guard, as a component of the Army of the United States, is immediately called into national service. Together with the Regular Army, it serves as the first line of defense while the reserve forces are being organized and equipped. An efficient Militia is authorized and contemplated by the Constitution and required by the spirit and safety of free government. — Madison. Organized Reserves. — The Organized Reserves, together with the other components of the Army, form the basis for a complete and immediate mobilization for national defense in any national emergency declared by Congress. Each reserve unit is now organized with its officers and a few enlisted specialists. In time of war these units will assemble at points designated, there to be equipped and trained. Every member of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps and all graduates of the citizens' military training camps who have qualified for leadership and have been commissioned would be required to report to his proper station on the designated day. To expose some men to the perils of the battle field while others are left to reap large gains from the distress of their country is not in harmony with our ideal of equality. — President Coolidge. 157. Preparedness an agency for peace. — The desire for peace is the spirit of America, but that peace must be dynamic, not a peace characterized by weakness of purpose or lack of courage. "Common defenselessness" is in opposition to the spirit of the Constitution. The best guaranty of peace is a physically fit people inspired by the spirit of the Constitution and strong enough to defend themselves against any foe. True Americans should be prepared to defend our Nation against those influences that will not only destroy all patriotic ideals that have been acquired through years of struggle but which advocate the overthrow of our Government by force. Our very freedom allows enemies within to operate with appalling boldness. They have powerful allies in the persons of those who would abolish all of our defenses — who would have peace at any price. The writings and utterances of the men who laid the foundations upon which posterity has been called to erect the superstructure of this Nation continually remind the citizen of the necessity to provide for an adequate defense of the blessings of liberty that, to insure them for future generations, we must be strong enough to protect and defend our country and our institutions from any hostile aggression, whether from without or within. By diffusing through the mass of the Nation the elements of military discipline and instruction; by augmenting and distributing warlike preparations applicable to future use; by evincing the zeal and valor with which they will be employed and the cheerfulness with which every necessary burden will be borne, a greater respect for our rights and a longer duration of our future peace are promised than could be expected without these proofs of the national character and resources. — Madison. 168. Moral qualities essential to self-preservation. — The American citizen must emphasize those qualities of character which mark him as truly worthy of the privileges of independence and liberty. His claim to self-respect is sound only as he upholds the self-respect of his fellow citizens. His honor is sacred only as he protects the honor of his country. He values liberty and independence only in so far as he is willing to pay the price for its protection. It takes more than eloquent speeches and hot words to accomplish sublime purpose — it takes risk; it takes sacrifice. It takes the spirit of a Nathan Hale, who, having been sent by General Washington to bring intelligence concerning the British in New York City, was captured within the British lines and executed as a spy by order of Sir William Howe, the British commander. His last words were: "I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." This is the spirit that won our liberties. It takes the same spirit to preserve our liberties. "We mutually pledge our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor." — Signers of the Declaration of Independence. The moral qualities essential to self-preservation are — The will to win. The courage to endure. The willingness to die. QUESTIONNAIRE How is the preservation of life and property assured? What is the bulwark of self-preservation? Explain. How can the American philosophy of government be preserved? Why is preparedness necessary? Who declare war? Is America militaristic? Explain. How does military training benefit the youth of America? Is America imperialistic? Explain. What is meant by "internationalism"? What are some of the baneful influences of pacifism? What are the essential qualifications of leadership? How can we best provide for the peace and security of our Nation? Describe the military policy of the United States. How does the State Department contribute to peace? What is the national defense act? What are some of its provisions? Name and describe the three components of the Army of the United States. In what way is preparedness an agency for peace? What moral qualities are essential to self-preservation? What provisions for national defense are contained in the Constitution? Why should military service in time of war be determined by the National Government instead of the State or the individual?
SECTION XII LESSON 12. — THE AMERICAN FLAG Paragraph Design accepted ---------------------------------------------------------159 Significance of elements ----------------------------------------------- 160 Progress of the flag ----------------------------------------------------- 161 Allocution of the stars ------------------------------------------------- 162 Inspiration of the flag -------------------------------------------------- 163 The future of the flag -------------------------------------------------- 164 Kinds of national flags ------------------------------------------------- 165 Federal laws ------------------------------------------------------------- 166 Method of displaying the flag ----------------------------------------- 167 When flown with other flags. International usage. General uses. Reveille and retreat. Memorial Day. Unveiling statues. Military funerals. Patriotic occasions. Signal of distress. Disposition of worn-out flags ----------------------------------------- 168 Military salute to the flag ---------------------------------------------- 169 National anthem -------------------------------------------------------- 170 National salute ---------------------------------------------------------- 171 Initial events of the American flag ------------------------------------ 172 159. Design accepted. — Gen. George Washington, Robert Morris, and Col. George Ross were appointed a committee by the Continental Congress to produce a flag for the United States of North America. Their report was approved and the design adopted on the 14th of June, 1777. By resolution Congress decided that the flag of the 13 United States should be 13 stripes, alternate red and white, and that the Union be 13 white stars on a blue field. 160. Significance of elements. — In describing its design Washington said: "We take the stars from heaven, the red from our mother country, separating it by white stripes, thus showing that we have separated from her, and the white stripes shall go down to posterity representing liberty." The Continental Congress defined the special significance of the chosen colors to be: White, suggesting purity and innocence; red, hardness and valor; blue, vigilance, perseverance, and justice. The stars of the Union were not merely a collection but a new constellation representing a new ideal in political and governmental affairs. The newly formed States were to develop under the control of laws, not independently nor indifferent to each other — but a Union, one and inseparable. 161. Progress of the flag. — After 1812 the flag moved west with the pioneers who explored the vast regions beyond the Alleghenies, the Mississippi Valley, the Rocky Mountains, to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, and the islands of the sea. Representing the United States, the flag flies today in Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines, Porto Rico, Guam, Tutuila, Panama, and at the North Pole. To be born under the American flag is to be the child of a king and to build a home under the Stars and Stripes is to establish a royal house. Alone of all flags it expresses the sovereignty of the people, which endures when all else passes away. Speaking with their voice, it has the sanctity of revelation. He who lives under it and is loyal to it is loyal to truth and justice everywhere. He who lives under it and is disloyal to it is a traitor to the human race everywhere. What could be saved if the flag of the American Nation were to perish? — President Coolidge. 162. Allocation of the stars. — President William H. Taft on October 25, 1912, by Executive order designated the specific location of the stars and their definite representations. They were to be arranged in six rows of eight stars, each star to symbolize a State in the order of its ratification of the Constitution: 1. Delaware. 2. Pennsylvania. 3. New Jersey. 4. Georgia. 6. Connecticut. 6. Massachusetts. 7. Maryland. 8. South Carolina. 9. New Hampshire. 10. Virginia. 11. New fork. 12. North Carolina. 13. Rhode Island. 14. Vermont. 15. Kentucky. 16. Tennessee. 17. Ohio. 18. Louisiana. 19. Indiana. 20. Mississippi. 21. Illinois. 22. Alabama. 23. Maine 24. Missouri. 25. Arkansas. 26. Michigan. 27. Florida. 28. Texas. 29. Iowa. 30. Wisconsin. 31. California. 32. Minnesota. 33. Oregon. 34. Kansas. 35. West Virginia. 36. Nevada. 37. Nebraska. 38. Colorado. 39. North Dakota. 40. South Dakota. 41. Montana. 42. Washington. 43. Idaho. 44. Wyoming. 45. Utah. 46. Oklahoma. 47. New Mexico. 48. Arizona. 163. Inspiration of the flag. — Like the cross, the flag is sacred. It represents the living country and is itself considered a living thing. It flies not only as the symbol of organization and protection, it also calls to duty. To the flag of the United States, and all that it represents, every citizen of America should render respect, reverence, and devotion. As you feel about your flag, so you feel about your Nation. Your flag, my flag, our flag! May we honor her as she honors us! 164. The future of the flag. — This flag, the emblem of justice and government, stands for the just use of undisputed national power. No nation is going to doubt our power to assert its rights. It is henceforth to stand for self-possession, dignity, for the assertion of the right of one nation to serve the other nations of the world — an emblem that will not condescend to be used for purposes of aggression and self-aggrandizement; that it is too great to be debased by-selfishness; that has vindicated its right to be honored by all nations of the world and feared by none who do righteousness. — Woodrow Wilson. 165. Kinds of national flags. — There are four kinds of national flags: Flags which are flown at military posts or on ships and used for display generally; small flags or ensigns which are used on small boats; colors which are carried by unmounted regiments; and standards which are carried by mounted regiments, and are, therefore, smaller in size than colors. There is prescribed in Army Regulations a knotted fringe of yellow silk on the national standards of mounted regiments and on the national colors of unmounted regiments. However, there is no law which either requires or prohibits the placing of a fringe on the flag of the United States. Ancient custom sanctions the use of fringe on the regimental colors and standards, but there seems to be no good reason or precedent for its use on other flags. 166. Federal laws. — There is no Federal law now in force pertaining to the manner of displaying, hanging, or saluting the United Stales flag, or prescribing any ceremonies that should be observed in connection therewith. There are but four Federal laws on the statute books that have any bearing upon this subject: (1) The act of Congress approved February 20, 1905, providing that a trade-mark can not be registered which consists of or comprises "the flag, coat of arms, or other insignia of the United States. or any simulation thereof." (2) A joint resolution of Congress approved May 8, 1914, authorizing the display of the flag on Mother's Day. (3) The act of Congress approved February 8, 1917, providing certain penalties for the desecration, mutilation, or improper use of the flag within the District of Columbia. (4) The act of Congress approved May 16, 1918, providing, when the United States is at war. for the dismissal from the service of any employee or official of the United States Government who criticizes in an abusive or violent manner the flag of the United States. Several States of the Union have enacted laws which have more or less bearing upon the general subject, and it seems probable that many counties and municipalities have also passed ordinances concerning this matter to govern action within their own jurisdiction. No present Federal statute punishing the desecration or abuse of the flag, in time of peace or in time of war. — Attorney General John G. Sargent A majority of States have passed acts designed to punish the desecration of the National flag and to prevent its use for advertising purposes. The constitutionality of such State legislation was upheld by the Supreme Court in Halter v. Nebr., 205 U. S. 34. There is a Federal statute similar in terms to many of the State laws which punishes the improper use of the flag in the District of Columbia — act February 8, 1917, chapter 34 (39 Stat. 900), but there is no Federal enactment which punishes such use outside the District. 167. Method of displaying the flag. — There are certain fundamental rules of heraldry which indicate the proper method of displaying the flag. There are also certain rules of good taste which, if observed, would insure the proper use of the flag. (1) The union of the flag is the honor point; the right arm is the sword arm and therefore the point of danger and hence the place of honor. (2) When the national flag is carried, as in a procession, with another flag or flags, the place of the national flag is on the right — i. e.. the flag's own right. (3) When the national flag and another flag are displayed together, as against a wall from crossed staffs, the national flag should be on the right, the flag's own right — i. e., the observer's left — and its staff should be in front of the staff of the other flag. (4) When a number of flags are grouped and displayed from staffs the national flag should be in the center or at the highest point of the group. (5) When the national flag is hung either horizontally or vertically against a wall the union should be uppermost and to the flag's own right — i. e., to the observer's left. When displayed from a staff projecting horizontally or at an angle from a window sill or the front of a building, the same rules should be observed. (6) When the flag is suspended between buildings so as to hang over the middle of the street, a simple rule is to hang the union to the north in an east and west street or to the east in a north and south street.
That the national flag when not flown from a staff be always hung flat, whether indoors or out. It should not be festooned over doorways or arches nor tied in a bowknot nor fashioned into a rosette. When used on a rostrum it should be displayed above and behind the speaker's desk. It should never be used to cover the speaker's desk nor to drape over the front of the platform. For this purpose as well as for decoration in general, bunting of the national colors should be used, arranged with the blue above, the while in the middle, and the red below. Under no circumstances should the flag be draped over chairs or benches, nor should any object or emblem of any kind be placed above or upon it, nor should it be hung where it can be easily contaminated or soiled. No lettering of any kind should ever be placed upon the flag. It should not be used as a portion of a woman's costume nor of a man's athletic clothing. A very common misuse of the flag is the practice of embroidering the flag on cushions and handkerchiefs, and the printing of the flag on paper napkins. These practices, while not strictly a violation of any present Federal law, certainly are lacking in respect and dignity and can not be considered as evidence of good taste. There is no objection to flying the flag at night on civilian property, provided it is not so flown for advertising purposes. Reveille and retreat. — It is the practice in the Army, each day in the year, to hoist the flag briskly at sunrise, irrespective of the condition of the weather, and to lower it slowly and ceremoniously at sunset, indicating the commencement and cessation of the activities of the day. Memorial Day. — On Memorial Day (May 30) at all Army posts and stations the national flag is displayed at half staff from sunrise until noon and at full staff from noon until sunset. When flown at half staff the flag is always first hoisted to the peak, the honor point, and then slowly lowered to the half-staff position in honor of those who gave their lives to their country, but before lowering the flag for the day it is raised again to the head of the staff, for the Nation lives and the flag is the living symbol of the Nation. Unveiling statues. — When flags are used in connection with the unveiling of a statue or monument, they should not be allowed to fall to the ground, but should be carried aloft to wave out, forming a distinctive feature during the remainder of the ceremony. Military funerals. — When the national flag is used on a bier or casket at a military funeral, the rule is the reverse of that for hanging vertically against a wall. The union should be placed at the head of the casket and over the left shoulder of the soldier. The casket should be carried foot first. The flag should not be lowered into the grave and in no case should it be allowed to touch the ground. When a body is shipped to relatives by the War Department for private burial, the flag which drapes the shipping case is turned over to relatives with the remains for use at the funeral, and may be retained by them. Patriotic occasions. — It is becoming the practice throughout the country among civilians to display the national flag on all patriotic occasions, especially on the following days: Lincoln's Birthday, February 12; Washington's Birthday, February 22; Mother's Day, second Sunday in May; Memorial Day, May 30; Flag Day, June 14; Independence Day, July 4; Armistice Day, November 11. In certain localities other special days are observed in the same manner. Signal of distress. — The flag should never be hung nor displayed union down except as a signal of distress at sea. 168. Disposition of worn-out flags. — Old or worn-out flags should not be used either for banners or for any secondary purpose. When a flag is in such a condition that it is no longer a fitting emblem for display, it should be destroyed, preferably by burning or by some other method lacking in any suggestion of irreverence or disrespect to the emblem representing our country. 169. Military salute to the flag. — When officers and enlisted men pass the national flag not incased or when the national flag is carried in a parade or procession, they will render honors as follows: If in civilian dress and covered, they will uncover, holding the headdress opposite the left shoulder with the right hand; if in uniform, covered, or uncovered, or in civilian dress uncovered, they will salute with the right-hand salute. 170. National anthem. — The musical composition familiarly known as the Star-Spangled Banner is designated as the national air of the United States of America. When played all officers and enlisted men present and not in formation are required to stand at attention, facing the music, except when the flag is being lowered at sunset, on which occasion they are required to face toward the flag. If in uniform they shall render the prescribed salute at the first note of the anthem, retaining the position of salute until the last note of the anthem. If not in uniform and covered, they are required to stand and uncover at the first note of the anthem, holding the headdress opposite the left shoulder until the last note is played, except in inclement weather when the headdress may be held slightly raised. The custom of rising and remaining standing and uncovered while the Star-Spangled Banner is being played has grown in favor among civilians. The Star-Spangled Banner should be played through without repetition of any part not required to be repeated to make it complete. It should not be played as part of a medley nor for dance music, nor at any point in a program or performance except at the beginning or the end. It is the practice in the Army to play the Star-Spangled Banner at the end of a musical program. 171. National salute. — The national salute to the American flag requires one gun for every star. NOTE. — It is not within the province of the War Department to force upon persons not in the military service the regulations governing the use of the flag within the Army. 172. Initial events of the American flag. June 14, 1777: The first American flag, made by Betsy Ross, was adopted by the Continental Congress as the flag of the United States of North America. 1787-1790: The Stars and Stripes first carried around the world by the ship Columbia.
November 1, 1777: The American flag was first flown at sea by Capt. Paul Jones. He sailed to carry the news to France that Burgoyne had surrendered. February 14. 1778: The first salute given the American flag, at Quiberon Bay, France, when the French Admiral La Motte Piquet, saluted the flag on the Ranger, commanded by Capt. Paul Jones. September 11, 1777: The American flag first went into battle, receiving its baptism of blood at the Brandywine. September 13. 1814: Francis Scott Key wrote the Star-Spangled Banner during the battle at Fort McHenry, in Baltimore Harbor. It was later officially designated as the national anthem. July 24. 1866: First American flag manufactured from American material hoisted over the Capitol at Washington. Previously the bunting had been manufactured outside the United States. QUESTIONNAIRE Explain the significance of the "elements" in the American flag. Describe the "progress" of the flag. Which star is allotted to your State? Why? What is meant by the "inspiration of the flag"? What is its message to you? There are how many kinds of national flags? Name them. What Federal laws relate to the flag? Should the American flag ever be used as an advertising device? Explain. Describe the methods of displaying the flag. When flown with other flags what is the position of the American flag? What is the international usage? What suggestions are made as to general uses? How is the flag flown on Memorial Day, and what is its significance? In unveiling statues, how should the flag be used? Describe the use of the flag at military funerals. On what special occasions is it customary to display the American flag? What is the position of the flag when used as a signal of distress? Describe the military salute to the flag. How should the national anthem be played? What should the audience do? What is the national salute to the flag? Explain.
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