Pompey's politics and the presentation of his theatre-temple complex, 61-52 bce

 

 

3

commissioner in Italy.

8

 And, to ensure personal and political stability between the 

two great generals, Pompey gladly accepted Caesar’s offer for his daughter’s hand in 

marriage. Pompey would rule Rome for most of the decade. He had more military 

influence than Crassus, Caesar was in Gaul, and his tribunes and allies controlled the 

provincial armies and the Mediterranean.

9

 

 

These events gave Pompey a renewed feeling of personal and political confi-

dence within the senatorial establishment.

10

 Success was once again on his side. There 

would be another noteworthy event which would spark his desire to build a perma-

nent theatre and therefore gain further popularity. Pompey’s decision was in re-

sponse to the critical views of the Roman people who were unsympathetic towards 

the political issues he was involved in and to gain back the favour of the masses he 

determined to build this monument devoted to entertainment.

11

 Cicero perceived the 

popular politicians of the triumvirate as the instigators of a grave political crisis. 

Pompey’s level of unpopularity among the masses was observed by Cicero at the 

games of Apollo in July 59. He remarked that the sentiments of the people were very 

clearly ascertained in the theatre and at public shows where both Pompey and his 

advisors were maligned with hisses and verbal insults (Att. 2.19). There were even 

rumours of a plot to murder him. This personal abuse vented at the games persuaded 

Pompey to search for some form of additional popularity among the masses. In reac-

tion to this negative sentiment he made the decision to build Rome’s first permanent 

stone theatre. He had the power and auctoritas  to  do  so  and  nobody  could  oppose 

him.

12

 After celebrating his third triumph in 61, Pompey already thought about a plan 

to build some type of permanent monument to honour his achievements. The idea 

arose from two noteworthy events: first he was so impressed by the theatre at 

Mytilene that he had sketches of it made and planned to build one like it in Rome, 

only larger and more splendid (Plut. Pomp. 42.4). Second, he received the privilege of 

wearing a gold wreath and embroidered toga at all theatrical performances, having 

endorsed the Roman tradition which linked politicians and the theatre.

13

  

 

As construction continued in 58, Caesar departed for Gaul on a campaign 

which would last almost ten years. Instigated by M. Porcius Cato’s remark that 

Pompey was „a dictator in all but name,” Clodius’ gangs began a series of humiliating 

verbal attacks upon Pompey and spread rumours of another assassination attempt.

14

 

Faction fights and riots continued into 57 between Milo and Clodius. 

 

Both factions expressed their opinion not only in the streets but also at public 

                                            

8

 Suet. Iul. 19, 21, 54.3; App. B. Civ. 2.2.13, Mith. 114; Plut. Pomp. 48.3; Cass. Dio 38.7.5; Cic. Att. 8.3.3, 2.5.1, 

2.16.2. Scullard 1982: 115. 

9

 Syme 1939: 35. 

10

 Rawson 1978: 106, „There is much to suggest that Pompey was active and feeling fulfilled in at least the 

first half of 59.” 

11

 Frézouls 1983: 204. 

12

 Plut. Pomp. 45.5; Vell. Pat. 2.40.3–4; Manil. Astron. 1.793; Plin. HN 37.6.14; Cass. Dio 37.21. 

13

 Since the beginning of the republic civil magistrates built temporary wooden theatres in an open area 

close to a temple during the annual ludi celebrations. Triumphant generals would do the same as part of 

their triumphal celebrations; App. B.  Civ. 1.28.125; Cic. Har.  resp. 12.24; Liv. 34.44.5, 34.54.4, 34.54.6–8, 

41.27.5–9, 45.43.1, 48, 51, 52, 59; Plin. HN 33.52.148–149, 34.16.36, 35.8.24, 37.6.12; Tac. Ann. 14.21; Val. 

Max. 2.4.2; Vell. Pat. 1.13.4–5, 1.15.3. 

14

 For Pompey and Cicero harassed by Clodius, see: Cic. Dom. 67 and 129, Sest. 69, Har. resp. 49, Pis. 28–29, 

Red. sen. 4; for Cato’s remark, see Cic. Q. Fr. 1.2.15. 

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4

theatrical events. During the games in honour of Apollo in July 57 a remarkable 

demonstration of the political potential inherent in theatrical occasions occurred in 

favour of the exiled Cicero.

15

 Romans from all classes demonstrated unequivocal 

public support for the popular orator. At the theatrical shows in the Campus Martius 

unanimous applause was given to senators and consuls for the decrees passed in 

favour of Cicero’s return to Rome. Clodius had been the only official to oppose the 

resolutions and when he arrived at the theatre the audience shouted, cursed and 

made rude gestures at him.

16

 The longing for Cicero’s return from exile was so fierce 

that plays were performed in his honour and actors hinted to the senators in the 

audience that they had erred by banning him from the city. In addition, each time 

there was an allusion to Cicero in a play the audience applauded enthusiastically for 

the return of this popular, noble and worthy Roman citizen (Cicero Sest. 56.121–57.122, 

58.123).

17

  

 

As Cicero reflected upon these events after his return to Rome he extolled the 

importance of the games as an opportunity for the expression and observation of 

public opinion. He was probably even dramatically pointing towards the direction of 

Pompey’s permanent stone theatre under construction when he emphasized that „the 

opinion and will of the Roman people concerning public matters can be most effec-

tually shown in three places: at a meeting, at an assembly, and at a gathering for 

plays” (Sest. 50.106). Pompey certainly noticed the importance of these public 

demonstrations and their weight in the city’s affairs. His objective would be to further 

his popularity by gaining the support of the theatre crowds.

18

 

 

In September 57 Pompey was appointed commissioner of the grain supply. He 

also received proconsular imperium and fifteen legates to take care of his provincial 

duties. Essentially, the office allowed him to remain in Rome for five years and he 

could supervise the completion of his theatre without any interruption of having to go 

abroad for military campaigns. The administrative office of grain commissioner might 

have in fact given Pompey the idea to enhance his theatre by adding a quadriportico 

which extended toward the Porticus Minucia Frumentaria. The two porticos would be 

closely associated with one another as victory monuments and some spaces within 

them served as minor locations for the distribution of grain and other commercial 

activities.

19

 

                                            

15

 Beacham 1991: 159. The events of 57 are explained by Cicero Sest. 50.106–59.127. 

16

 During the performance of the comedy Simulans the actors looked straight at Clodius in disapproval 

and chanted in a mocking tone: „For this, Titus, the end of your vicious life is in front of you” (Cic. Sest. 

55.118). 

17

 Passages from Accius’ tragedy Eurysaces, read by the famous tragic actor Aesopus, expressed the grief 

of the people toward Cicero: „who will have helped the republic with a firm spirit?....Our most distin-

guished friend in our most important battle.” The audience knew these lines referred to Cicero and 

applauded wildly. Their longing was great for the man „endowed with greatest genius.” Aesopus also 

interpolated lines from the Andromache of Ennius: „You allow him to be banished, you cause him to be 

driven away, you suffer now that he has been exiled.” He hinted to the Senate, Equites, and Roman 

people that they had erred by banning Cicero from the city; see Cic. Sest. 56.121–57.122. The longing for 

Cicero’s return from exile was so fierce that he was even mentioned by name during the performance of 

the play Brutus – the line „Tullius, who had established freedom for the citizens,” was encored many 

times over as the audience applauded enthusiastically; see Cic. Sest. 58.123. Seager 1982: 328–338. 

18

 Frézouls 1983: 203–204. 

19

 Marcus Minucius Rufus, consul in 110 and proconsul in Macedonia, won major victories, held a 

triumph in 106 and built the Porticus Minucia as his victory monument. It became the main distribution 

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