British Monarchs

Chinese Dynasties

Shang-skilled at bronze-working, 1st ruling family to leave written records, burned Confucian books, Shang di, capital was Anyang

Qin-Legalist philosophies, Great Wall of China, Emperor Shi Huangdi, built 4,000 miles of roads, Terracotta Warriors, centralized China with uniform writing, laws, currency, weights and measures

Han-Confucian philosophies, 18 ranks of civil service jobs, encouraged assimilation of conquered territories, ruled 400 years, split in 2 periods, Emperor Wudi, established bureaucracy, Emperor Liu Bang, invented paper, double-bladed plow, monopolies on salt, iron, coined money, alcohol, and silk

Zhou-established feudalism in China, introduced coined money, justified overthrowing Shang with Mandate of Heaven, developed iron tools

Romanov Dynasty

Ivan the Terrible-Russian time of troubles

Mikail-Didn't do anything radical. Stable, calm. Traditional.

Alexi Mikailovich (Raskol)-Made changes, very influencced by religious tension, launches reform on the Orthodox Church. Old Believers reject him but he prosecutes them and the rest flee.

Feodor- Dies young, Mikailovich's son. Has 2 sons with two different wives so the 2 families fight. Older son is mentally handicapped. Bloody.

Ivan- Feodor's older son. Mentally handicapped, doesn't last.

Peter I- GREAT. Mikailovich's second son. Dedicated Westernizer. Spends a lot of time on the Navy. Expands a lot. Organization and efficiency, Table of Ranks. Improves the tax system b/c he organizes Russia into provinces with their own governor. Make the church more efficient so he takes out the patriarch, like England. Builds a new capital city in St. Petersburg, western and a port city on the Baltic. Scraps the Russian culture: government is in French, education is in German, looks and acts Western. His son says he's going to change everything when he becomes czar but then Peter killed him.

Catherine I-Peter the Great's wife

Peter II- Peter's grandson

Ann-Peter the Great's niece

Elizabeth-Peter's daughter. comes up and economy sucks. She obsessively tries to find a great male heir. Completely failed in one way but had complete success in another way. Failure- focused on her nephew, Peter III. Bad choice. He grew up in German, is completely German. Does not want to be czar. But he doesn't have a choice and hates everything about it. Elizabeth brings Peter to Russia with Catherine for him to marry.

Peter III-Everyone hates him. Adult and all he does is lays in bed and plays with toy soldiers and drink. Beats his wife. Hates his job. Assassinated after 5 months.

Catherine II-GREAT. German. She learned Russian, dressed like a Russian, never a single negative word about her husband. Everyone loved and respected her. Had a son. #1 achievement was that Russia was now a major player in Europe. Enlightened ruler. Legal reforms. Colleges for women. Religious tolerance. Military improvement. Failed with making serfs' lives better. Worried about her relationship with the nobles. Vulnerabilities: has a son, German, and a woman. Pugachev riots. Had loads of lovers = slut. She was a terrible mother to her son, Paul, ignored him. Paul wasn't the son of Peter. Paul never knew Peter wasn't his dad and when he found out, he hated her.

Paul-Cat's bastard son. Undid everything Catherine did. And then 5 years, assassinated. "Petty tyrant"

Alex I-defeated Napoleon. Congress of Vienna, the liberal Decemberist revolt. He completely reoriented Russia. Called him a Sphinx. He loved his father and saw him as a strong leader. Had a great relationship with his grandmother.

Nicholas I-the Decemberists tried to kill him on the day of his coronation. Very repressive. Official nationalism, focused on the russian identity. Isolation from the west. ended with the Crimean war (everyone against Russia). Completely disconnected from russia. Seriously broken.

Alex II-a major reformer.. Sets up a commission to see what Russia would be like without serfs. Nothing happens because the commission doesn't do anything. Emancipation Manifesto: 1) grants personal and legal freedom to all serfs 2) if you worked the land, you were given land. Limitations- 1) they don't have any rights, not equal 2) The land they're granted is infertile and not free, they have to take it and you have to pay the previous owner back within 44 years 3) Serfs, although free, cannot leave their communities (Mir) without permission, Legal Reforms- opens Russian law schools. Trial by Jury. Educational reforms- focus on primary education. Wants everyone to be literate, Zemstvo- community councils elected by the people of the community and they decided how to spend government funds. Super successful.assassinated by people who don't think he's radical enough.

Alex III-isolated, not public, launches on Russification. Policy of censorship, repression, control. He pushes industrialization. Russia complete the Trans-Siberian railway, Vladavostok to Moscow. Populates places with potential.

Nick II-last tsar. He does not want to be tsar and he's set on absolute monarchy. The 1917 revolution puts him out.

Anthropologists

1. 
   Franz Boas (1858–1942) Often called the founder of modern anthropology, this first professor of anthropology at Columbia University trained Mead, Benedict, Alfred Kroeber, author Zora Neale Hurston, and many others. He conducted fieldwork on the Inuits of Baffin Island and the Kwakiutl (now referred to as Kwakwaka’wakw) on Vancouver Island. His publications include 1911’s The Mind of Primitive Man, which describes a gift-giving ceremony known as the “potlatch.”
   
2. 
   Margaret Mead (1901–1978) For her best-known work, Coming of Age in Samoa, Mead interviewed young girls on the island of Ta’u, which led her to conclude that adolescence in Samoan society was much less stressful than in the United States; in The Fateful Hoaxing of Margaret Mead, Derek Freeman claimed that she was lied to in those interviews. She also studied three tribes in New Guinea — the Arapesh, Mundugumor, and Tchambuli — for her book on Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies.
   
3. 
   Ruth Benedict (1887–1948) A colleague and friend of Mead, Benedict studied the Zuni, Dobu, and Kwakiutl cultures in Patterns of Culture, using them to illustrate the idea of a society’s culture as “personality writ large.” She also described Japanese culture in The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, a work written during World War II at the request of the U.S. government.
   
4. 
   Bronislaw Malinowski (1884–1942) The Polish-born Malinowski, whose name is pronounced [BRAH-nuss-waf mah-lih-NAWF-skee], studied at the London School of Economics, where he would later spend most of his career. He described the “kula ring” gift exchanges found in the Trobriand Islands in Argonauts of the Western Pacific, and the use of magic in agriculture in Coral Gardens and Their Magic. He also argued, in opposition to Sigmund Freud, that the Oedipus complex was not a universal element of human culture in his book on Sex and Repression in Savage Society.
   
5. 
   Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–2009) In the 1930s, Lévi-Strauss did fieldwork with the Nambikwara people of Brazil, which formed the basis for his thesis on “The Elementary Structures of Kinship.” He held the chair in social anthropology at the Collèege de France from 1959 to 1982, during which time he published such books as The Savage Mind and a tetralogy about world mythology whose volumes include The Raw and the Cooked. He pioneered in applying the structuralist methods of Ferdinand de Saussure to anthropology, which led him to study cultures as sets of binary oppositions.
   
6. 
   Clifford Geertz (1926–2006) Geertz is best known for his work in symbolic anthropology, a view that he expounded in his book The Interpretation of Cultures. In that book, he introduced the term “thick description” to describe his method of analyzing behavior within its social context. One such “thick description” appears in his essay “Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight,” in which Geertz discusses cockfighting as a symbolic display of a certain kind of masculinity.
   
7. 
   Alfred Radcliffe-Brown (1881–1955) Radcliffe-Brown is considered the founder of a school of anthropology known as structural functionalism, which focuses on identifying the groups within a society and the rules and customs that define the relationships between people. His own early fieldwork was conducted in the Andaman Islands and Western Australia, where he studied the social organization of Australian tribes. After teaching in Australia, South Africa, and at the University of Chicago, he returned to England, where he founded the Institute of Social and Cultural Anthropology at Oxford.
   
8. 
   James Frazer (1854–1941) Frazer was a Scottish anthropologist who primarily studied mythology and comparative religion. His magnum opus, The Golden Bough, analyzed a wide range of myths that center on the death and rebirth of a solar deity; the original publication controversially discussed the crucifixion of Jesus as one such myth. The work’s title refers to a gift given to Persephone by Aeneas so that he could enter the underworld in the Aeneid.
   
9. 
   Thor Heyerdahl (1914–2002) In 1947, Heyerdahl and five companions sailed across the Pacific Ocean — going from Peru to the Tuamotu Islands — on a balsa-wood raft named Kon-Tiki, after the Incan sun god Kon-Tiki Viracocha. He later built two boats from papyrus (Ra, which failed in 1969, and Ra II, which succeeded in 1970) to sail across the Atlantic Ocean. These voyages demonstrated the possibility that ancient people could have migrated around the globe using only primitive rafts.
   
10. 
    Jane Goodall (born 1934) Goodall is a British primatologist who is best known for her work with chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania. Her first research was carried out with Louis Leakey at Olduvai Gorge. In her pioneering work with primates, which is detailed in such books as In the Shadow of Man, she discovered that chimpanzees have the ability to use tools, such as inserting grass into termite holes to “fish” for termites.
    

Mathematicians

 The work of Isaac Newton (1643-1727, English) in pure math includes generalizing the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, doing the first rigorous manipulation with power series, and creating "Newton's method" for the finding roots. He is best known, however, for a lengthy feud between British and Continental mathematicians over whether he or Gottfried Leibniz invented calculus (whose differential aspect Newton called "the method of fluxions"). It is now generally accepted that they both did, independently.

 Euclid (c. 300 BC, Alexandrian Greek) is principally known for the Elements, a textbook on geometry and number theory, that was used for over 2,000 years and which grounds essentially all of what is taught in modern high school geometry classes. Euclid is known for his five postulates that define Euclidean (i.e., "normal") space, especially the fifth (the "parallel postulate") which can be broken to create spherical and hyperbolic geometries. He also proved the infinitude of prime numbers.

 Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855, German) is considered the "Prince of Mathematicians" for his extraordinary contributions to every major branch of mathematics. His Disquisitiones Arithmeticae systematized number theory and stated the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. He also proved the fundamental theorem of algebra, the law of quadratic reciprocity, and the prime number theorem. Gauss may be most famous for the (possibly apocryphal) story of intuiting the formula for the summation of an arithmetic series when given the busywork task of adding the first 100 positive integers by his primary school teacher.

 Archimedes (287-212 BC, Syracusan Greek) is best known for his "Eureka moment" of using density considerations to determine the purity of a gold crown; nonetheless, he was the preeminent mathematician of ancient Greece. He found the ratios between the surface areas and volumes of a sphere and a circumscribed cylinder, accurately estimated pi, and presaged the summation of infinite series with his "method of exhaustion."

 Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716, German) is known for his independent invention of calculus and the ensuing priority dispute with Isaac Newton. Most modern calculus notation, including the integral sign and the use of d to indicate a differential, originated with Leibniz. He also invented binary numbers and did fundamental work in establishing boolean algebra and symbolic logic.

 Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665, French) is remembered for his contributions to number theory including his "little theorem" that a^p - a will be divisible by p if p is prime. He also studied Fermat primes (those of the form 2²ⁿ+1) and stated his "Last Theorem" that xⁿ + yⁿ = zⁿ has no solutions if x, y, and z are positive integers and n is a positive integer greater than 2. He and Blaise Pascal founded probability theory. In addition, he discovered methods for finding the maxima and minima of functions and the areas under polynomials that anticipated calculus and inspired Isaac Newton.

 Leonhard Euler (1707-1783, Swiss) is known for his prolific output and the fact that he continued to produce seminal results even after going blind. He invented graph theory with the Seven Bridges of Königsberg problem and introduced the modern notation for e, the square root of -1 (i), and trigonometric functions. Richard Feynman called his proof that e^iπ = -1 "the most beautiful equation in mathematics" because it linked four of math's most important constants.

 Kurt Gödel (1906-1978, Austrian) was a logician best known for his two incompleteness theorems proving that every formal system that was powerful enough to express ordinary arithmetic must necessarily contain statements that were true, but which could not be proved within the system itself.

 Andrew Wiles (1953-present, British) is best known for proving the Taniyama-Shimura conjecture that all rational semi-stable elliptic curves are modular. This would normally be too abstruse to occur frequently in quiz bowl, but a corollary of that result established Fermat's Last Theorem.

 William Rowan Hamilton (1805-1865, Irish) is known for extending the notion of complex numbers to four dimensions by inventing the quaternions, a non-commutative field with six square roots of -1: ±i, ±j, and ±k with the property that ij = k, jk = i, and ki = j.

Psychologists

1. 
   Sigmund Freud (Austrian, 1856-1939) Sigmund Freud founded the extremely influential discipline of psychoanalysis, which used the technique of "free association" to identify fears and repressed memories. He argued that many problems were caused by mental states rather than by biochemical dysfunction--a purely materialist viewpoint then in vogue. He separated the psyche into the id (illogical passion), ego (rational thought), and superego (moral and social conscience). His best known works are The Interpretation of Dreams and The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, though many others come up frequently in quiz bowl.
   
2. 
   Carl Jung (Austrian, 1875-1961) Carl Jung was a close associate of Freud's who split with him over the degree to which neuroses had a sexual basis. He went on to create the movement of "analytic psychology" and introduced the controversial notion of the "collective unconscious"--a socially shared area of the mind. Quiz bowlers should be familiar with "anima," "animus," "introversion," "extroversion," and "archetypes," all terms that occur frequently in questions on Jung.
   
3. 
   Alfred Adler (Austrian, 1870-1937) Alfred Adler was another close associate of Freud who split with him over Freud's insistence that sexual issues were at the root of neuroses and most psychological problems. Adler argued in The Neurotic Constitution that neuroses resulted from people's inability to achieve self-realization; in failing to achieve this sense of completeness, they developed "inferiority complexes" that inhibited their relations with successful people and dominated their relations with fellow unsuccessful people, a theory given the general name of "individual psychology."
   
4. 
   Ivan Pavlov (Russian 1849-1936) Ivan Pavlov was more of a physiologist than a psychologist, but questions about him are more often classified as "psychology" than "biology" by question writers. He is largely remembered for his idea of the "conditioned reflex," for example, the salivation of a dog at the sound of the bell that presages dinner, even though the bell itself is inedible and has no intrinsic connection with food. He won the Nobel Prize in 1904 for Physiology or Medicine for unrelated work on digestive secretions.
   
5. 
   John B. Watson (American, 1878-1958) John Watson was the first prominent exponent of behaviorism; he codified its tenets in Behavior: An Introduction to Comparative Psychology, arguing that psychology could be completely grounded in objective measurements of events and physical human reactions. His most famous experiment involved conditioning an eleven-month-old boy to be apprehensive of all furry objects by striking a loud bell whenever a furry object was placed in his lap.
   
6. 
   B. F. Skinner (American, 1904-1990) B. F. Skinner was one of the leading proponents of behaviorism in works like Walden II and Beyond Freedom and Dignity. He argued that all human actions could be understood in terms of physical stimuli and learned responses and that there was no need to study--or even believe in--internal mental states or motivations; in fact, doing so could be harmful. Guided by his ideas, he trained animals to perform complicated tasks including teaching pigeons to play table tennis.
   
7. 
   Jean Piaget (Swiss, 1896-1980) Jean Piaget is generally considered the greatest figure of 20th-century developmental psychology; he was the first to perform rigorous studies of the way in which children learn and come to understand and respond to the world around them. He is most famous for his theory of four stages of development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. His most famous works are The Language and Thought of a Child and The Origins of Intelligence in Children.
   
8. 
   Erik Erikson (German-born American, 1902-1994) Erik Erikson is best known for his theories on how social institutions reflect the universal features of psychosocial development; in particular, how different societies create different traditions and ideas to accommodate the same biological needs. He created a notable eight-stage development process and wrote several "psychohistories" explaining how people like Martin Luther and Mahatma Gandhi were able to think and act the way they did.
   
9. 
   Abraham Maslow (American, 1908-1970) Abraham Maslow is principally known for two works, Motivation and Personality and Toward a Psychology of Being, that introduced his theory of the "hierarchy of needs" (food, shelter, love, esteem, etc.) and its pinnacle, the need for "self-actualization." Self-actualized people are those who understand their individual needs and abilities and who have families, friends, and colleagues that support them and allow them to accomplish things on which they place value. The lowest unmet need on the hierarchy tends to dominate conscious thought.
   
10. 
    Stanley Milgram (American, 1933-1984) Though he did the work that created the idea of "six degrees of separation" and the "lost-letter" technique, he is mainly remembered for his experiments on "obedience to authority" that he performed at Yale in 1961-1962. Milgram found that two-thirds of his subjects were willing to administer terrible electric shocks to innocent, protesting human beings simply because a researcher told them the experimental protocol demanded it.
    

Battles of the Ancient World

1. 
   One of the earliest battles in recorded history, the Battle of Kadesh (1274 BC) was fought near the Orontes River in modern-day Syria between Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses II and the Hittite king Muwatalli II. Although Ramses proclaimed a great victory for himself, he was lucky to achieve a stalemate after being ambushed by Hittite chariots. Kadesh was probably the largest chariot battle in history, with over 5,000 chariots engaged. The Egyptian chariots were smaller and faster than those used by the Hittites, which gave the Egyptians an advantage.
   
2. 
   Persian King Darius I’s invasion of mainland Greece ended with a decisive victory for Miltiades and the Athenians at Marathon (490 BC). The defeated Persian commanders were Datis and Artaphernes. Among the few Athenian dead of the battle were archon Callimachus and the general Stesilaos. Legend has it that the Greek messenger Pheidippides ran to Athens with news of the victory, but collapsed upon arrival. This is the inspiration for the modern race known as the “marathon.”
   
3. 
   Thermopylae (480 BC) was the first battle of the second Persian invasion of Greece. Although the Persians under Xerxes I and his general Mardonius defeated the Spartans, King Leonidas and his Spartan troops put up a heroic defense of the pass at Thermopylae (the “hot gates”). The Greeks were betrayed by Ephialtes, who told the Persians about a path that led behind the Spartans. The battle was part of Themistocles’ plan to halt the advance of the Persians. The other part of his plan was to block the Persian navy at Artemisium, and a battle occurred there simultaneously.
   
4. 
   The naval battle at Salamis (480 BC) was a major turning point in the Greco-Persian Wars, as it signaled the beginning of the end of Persian attempts to conquer Greece. The battle is named after an island in the Saronic Gulf near Athens. Xerxes was so confident in victory that he watched the battle from a throne on the slopes of Mount Aegaleus. The Athenian general Themistocles devised a plan to lure the large, slow Persian ships into the narrow straits where the Greek ships were able to outmaneuver and destroy much of the Persian fleet. The Persian admiral Ariabignes was killed in hand-to-hand combat, and the Queen of Halicarnassus, Artemisia, had to sink some of her allies’ ships to escape.
   
5. 
   The Battle of Aegospotami (405 BC) on the Hellespont (Dardanelles) ended the Peloponnesian War and the Athenian Empire. After a setback at the Battle of Arginusae in 406 BC, the Spartans reinstated Lysander as the commander of their fleet. The result was a complete victory for Sparta; only a fraction of the Athenian fleet survived, including the general Conon, and the ship Paralus, which brought the news of defeat to Athens. Following the battle, the Spartans besieged Athens and forced its surrender.
   
6. 
   After the Battle of Granicus, Issus (333 BC) was the second major battle between Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire, and the first to feature Darius III. The battle was fought along the Pinarus River near present day Iskenderun in Turkey’s Hatay province. Before the battle, Darius was able to surprise Alexander and cut him off from the main force of Macedonians. However, the battle ended with Darius fleeing the field and the capture of his tent and family. The battle was the subject of a 1528 painting by Albrecht Altdorfer, the leader of the Danube School.
   
7. 
   The largest battle of the Second Punic War, Cannae (216 BC) represented one of the worst defeats in Roman history. The Carthaginians were led by Hannibal, while the Romans were led by the consuls Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro. Hannibal employed a double-envelopment tactic, surrounded the Roman army, and destroyed it. Although a total disaster for the Romans, it resulted in their adopting of the Fabian strategy, in which battles are avoided in favor of a war of attrition. This eventually wore down Hannibal’s army, and the Carthaginians had to leave Italy.
   
8. 
   The final battle of the Second Punic War, Zama (202 BC) was fought near Carthage in modern-day Tunisia. Scipio Africanus’s victory at the Battle of the Great Plains in 203 BC forced Hannibal to leave Italy and return to North Africa for the final showdown. Prior to the battle, the Numidian king Masinissa switched sides, and brought his considerable cavalry force to join the Romans. This, coupled with Scipio’s strategy of opening up his lines to allow Carthaginian elephants through without harming his troops, led to a complete Roman victory.
   
9. 
   At Alesia (52 BC), Julius Caesar defeated the Celtic peoples of Gaul, establishing Roman rule of the lands beyond the Alps. The battle began when Caesar besieged Vercingetorix in the town of Alesia, shortly after the Roman defeat at Gergovia. The Romans built a wall to surround the city (a “circumvallation”) and a second wall around that (a “contravallation”) to protect themselves from the Gaulish relief army under Commius. When Commius launched a massive attack on the Romans, Caesar was able to defeat him and force the surrender of Vercingetorix. Although the Romans were outnumbered by as much as four to one, they proved victorious in what was the turning point of the Gallic Wars.
   
10. 
    At Actium (31 BC), the fleet of Octavian defeated the combined forces of Cleopatra and Mark Antony at this battle near modern-day Preveza in the Ambracian Gulf of Greece. Marcus Agrippa commanded Octavian’s fleet, which consisted of small, nimble Liburnian ships. Antony’s fleet consisted of massive Quinqueremes, which were less mobile. Following his victory in the battle, Octavian titled himself Princeps, and later Augustus. To some, Actium signals the end of the Roman Republic.
    
11. 
    The Battle of the Milvian Bridge (AD 312) was part of the civil war that ensued when Maxentius usurped the throne of the western half of the Roman Empire from Constantine. Prior to the battle, Constantine supposedly had a vision of God promising victory to his forces if he painted his shields with the Chi-Rho, a Christian symbol. Constantine was indeed victorious, and Maxentius drowned in the Tiber River during the battle. Eventually, Constantine was able to abolish the Tetrarchy, become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire, and end persecution of the Christians.
    
12. 
    Taking place near modern Edirne, Turkey, the Battle of Adrianople (AD 378) signalled the beginning of the spread of Germanic peoples into the Western Roman Empire. The Romans were led by the eastern emperor Valens, while the Goths were led by Fritigern. Eager for glory, Valens decided not to wait on reinforcements from the western emperor Gratian, and instead attacked the Goths. In the battle, over two-thirds of the Roman army was killed, including Valens. The battle was chronicled by Ammianus Marcellinus, who thought it so important that he ended his history of the Roman Empire with the battle.
    
13. 
    The Battle of Chalons (or Catalaunian Fields) (AD 451) was an epic battle between the Romans and the Huns fought in what is now France. The Roman army was commanded by Flavius Aetius and included Visigoths under Theodoric I, who was killed by an Ostrogoth during the battle. The Hunnic army was led by Attila, who was rampaging through Gaul. The battle ended with a victory for the Roman-Visigothic alliance, which stopped the Huns’ advance into Gaul. The next year, Attila invaded Italy; however, in 453, Attila died and his empire broke up shortly after.