57
beater’], of uncertain origin, is linked to the
materiality of shamanic practices. Only two of
these words,
*noajtē and
*pe
̮ lēmē belong
unambiguously to the Common Proto-Sámi
vocabulary of shamanism: it is not clear that
the latter spread with Proto-Sámi, while the
former seems not to have been specific to any
particular practice or practitioner.
Delimiting the Supernatural (4 words)
The Uralic or West Uralic word (19)
*pe
̮ sē
[‘sacred, holy’] was likely connected with
delimiting spaces and times as religiously
significant. However, the concept is so
common that the word may quite possibly have
been transferred to local concepts in Proti-
Sámi’ spread. Etymologically, the word (20)
*e̮me̮s [‘strange’] could have entailed a
concept parallel to
*pe
̮ sē, but it may have lost
connotations of the sacred in the process of
Proto-Sámi spread if not before.
Two words stand out because they structure
the supernatural in the landscape. The Proto-
Scandinavian loan (2)
*sāvje
̮ was most likely
encountered as a common noun for a body of
fresh water. For reasons unknown, it became
linked to supernatural concepts within the
Proto-Sámi language network. The diversity of
phenomena with which it is identified in
different Sámi languages suggests that, rather
than spreading with a uniform concept or
practices, speakers applied
*sāvje
̮ as a term
within local religion formations. It seem unlikely
that
*sāvje
̮ ever designated a uniform concept
or phenomenon across Proto-Sámi dialect
areas. The word (22) *
siejtē refers to a focus of
ritual activity which is identified as a physical
site for engaging in communication with the
supernatural world. This word seems to be the
only lexical item reviewed with a strong
probability of spreading in conjunction with
religious concepts and practices. Since
*siejtē
seems to be a loan into Proto-Sámi, however,
it is unclear whether the term and connection
with ritual or religious practices was
established early and spread
with the language
or spread later through the dialect continuum.
The Bear (1 word)
The Proto-Scandinavian loan
*pierne
̮ [‘bear’]
could link to naming-avoidance and thus reflect
taboos or concerns about how bears were
referred to. This would be consistent with later
traditions of bear ceremonialism among the
Sámi, but such traditions of the bear are so
common that it does not indicate traditions
related to bears spread with Proto-Sámi.
Burial and ‘Souls’ (5 words)
This set includes the Late Proto-Finnic loans
(7)
*hāvtē [‘grave, hole’], (8)
*kālmē [‘grave’],
(9)
*heaŋke
̮ [‘breath; spirit’] and (10)
*vājmō
[‘marrow; heart’] as well as the potentially
Uralic or West Uralic
*jāmē- [‘to die’]. These
five terms are potentially all semantically
central vocabulary that would be more
resistant to exchange,
even if such words were
not exempt from the negotiation of a Common
Proto-Sámi vocabulary. This group accounts
for four of the five addressed Late Proto-Finnic
loans, to which the fifth, (11)
*tāvte
̮ [‘illness,
malady’], addressed in the following section,
can also be potentially linked through connection
to vernacular physiology. Any clustering could
be accidental. However, it potentially includes
all of the Late-Proto-Finnic loans reviewed
while constituting almost 20% of the total
vocabulary reviewed – two factors that reduce
the likelihood of coincidence. (The development
in the semantics of the inherited term
*jāmē-
could also relate to this cluster, although
evidence is lacking.) That there are two terms
related to the materiality of burial is particularly
striking. This vocabulary seems to reflect
Proto-Finnic impacts on practices related to
death and conceptions of the soul.
Historically, it seems most probable that
these impacts preceded significant spread of
Proto-Sámi. Once established, the terms linked
to burial and death would presumably be used
categorically and transferred to new contexts.
This model would be consistent with long-term
continuities in the archaeological record and
the corresponding lack of evidence for new
mortuary practices and relevant conceptions
spreading once the dialect continuum had been
established. The vocabulary cluster seem much
less likely to be linked to a spread of practices
in conjunction with Proto-Sámi. Terms
related
to vernacular physiology may have been to
some degree encoded with the concepts and
symbols to which they referred. The spread of
the vocabulary may thus have had some impact
on local conceptions. Nevertheless, their
impacts on local categories and conceptions
should not be exaggerated as religion
per se.
58
Illness, Luck and Medicine (5 words)
In pre-modern environments, disruptions to the
body such as illness or injury interfaced with
vernacular models of physiology. Vernacular
physiology engaged a mythic level of thought
concerning the body and how it works. This
brings the remaining Late Proto-Finnic loan
(11)
*tāvte
̮ [‘illness, malady’] into alignment
with the cluster related to death and physiology
above, grouping also with (25)
*pākće
̮ s [‘pain,
ache’], of uncertain etymology.
In Western societies today, physical
disorders are clearly distinguished from social
disorders like difficulty getting married or
supernatural disorders like being cursed. In
pre-modern societies, our scientifically-based
distinctions between physical, social and
supernatural fields do not hold: a healer can be
visited to restore lost ‘luck’; physical illness
can be interpreted as an outcome of a curse or
other supernatural agency. Thus, both (13)
*vuorpē [‘lot, luck’], which spread with Proto-
Sámi, and potentially the Proto-Scandinavian
loan (5)
*likkō [‘luck’] can be grouped with
illness as a vocabulary of order and disorder of
an individual’s life for which supernatural
intervention might be requested. The word (26)
*tālkke̮s [‘medicine’],
of uncertain etymology,
may also belong to the same sphere.
All five words in this section could have
been relevant to ritual specialists. They also
belong to categories that easily increase in
vocabulary. In other words, there can be many
words for ‘pain’, ‘illness’, ‘medicine’ or even
‘luck’ that make meaningful distinctions.
Supernatural Agents of Legends (4 words)
Four words designate supernatural agents of
chaos or harm that are characters of legends
and tales. The Proto-Finnic loan (12)
*pearke
̮ le̮
has a long history but emerges as only a
general term for ‘evil spirit, devil’. The Proto-
Scandinavian loan (3)
*rāvke
̮ seems to have
spread in conjunction with a specific concept,
presumably in connection with narrative
traditions. The roots of the Proto-Scandinavian
loan (4)
*stālō are unclear, but this word seems
to have developed considerably and spread
widely within the Proto-Sámi language
networks, again in connection with narrative
traditions. The being called (24)
*ācē appears
to be particularly connected with Northern
Eurasian hunting cultures and similarly spread
through the Proto-Sámi language networks,
although with an independent origin. All four
categories of supernatural beings named in the
Common Proto-Sámi lexicon are adversaries
of society, agents of chaos. With the possible
exception of
*pearke
̮ le̮, they are entities of
narrative discourse, not objects of ritual, prayer
and other religious activities.
Gaps in the Common Proto-Sámi Lexicon
Theonyms are conspicuously lacking from this
inventory. This absence is more pronounced
when Proto-Sámi retains cognates of the
probable name of the Proto-Uralic sky god
*Ilma [‘Sky’] as a common noun with no
indication of its use as a theonym:
39
(27)
*e
̮ lmē
(§12)
(
albmi)
‘sky’
Uralic languages generally exhibit a historical
pattern of semantic correlation that leads the
phenomenon ‘sky’ to correspond to the
theonym of the sky-god (Frog 2017). Proto-
Sámi (less likely Pre-Sámi) seems not only to
have lost the probable theonym
*E
̮ lmē: it also
exhibits another term which equally lacks a
corresponding theonym:
(28)
*ājmō
(§37)
(
áibmu)
‘sky, world, weather’
There is no consensus on the etymology of
*ājmō. It has been approached as from a Pre-
Sámi language phase with a cognate in Finnic
(~ Fi.
*aimo [‘great; real’]) or as a Proto-
Scandinavian loan (~ ON
heimr [‘abode;
region; village; world’]).
40
In either case, the
noun for the phenomenon does not exhibit a
corollary theonym,
41
suggesting that Proto-
Sámi diverged from the Uralic pattern of
correlating the noun with the name of a
corresponding god.
The central west and northwest religion
regions exhibit an identification of the thunder
god with derivatives of:
(29)
*ājjē
(§32)
(
áddjá)
‘grandfather’
*Ājjē (~ Fi.
äijä [‘grandfather’]) appears in this
use in Ume, Arjeplog, Lule, Inari, Kemi, and
most North Sámi areas (Rydving 2010: 97–
101). It is paralleled in designations for the
thunder-god in Finnic cultures as ‘Grandfather’
(Fi.
Äijä), ‘Old Man’ (Fi.
Ukko), and so on.
42